Online Materials, Federal Policy, Week 2, Lecture 2

Similarities between America & Canada in the 19th Century

Assimilation

1. agriculture
2. Christianity
3. education

• land hunger among non-natives
• paternalism
• underfunded Indian service
• reservation/reserve policy
• assumption of assimilation
• railroad/infrastructure development on Native lands
• gold rushes

Differences between US & Canada

• Canada-oriented to Britain/US independent
• states had less power in US, individual territories more powerful in Canad
• smaller settler population in Canada,
  
• Canada: more willing to recognize tribal groups
• more violent conflicts in US Civil war with natives than Canadian confederates had with 1st nations

Pacific Northwest:

• maritime fur trade-1792-1812
• Indians were shrewd traders
• Indians greatly controlled the trade relationship
• fairly peaceful co-existence
• cultural change-not very disruptive
• Columbia river, essential to trade
• forts: new habitats for Indian traders
• Indians & whites both wanted monopolies
• treaty period between 1850 and 1871
• Columbia River Treaties
• Douglas treaties
• 
  

Week 2 Online Materials

• colonization > designation of tribes, ignores fluidity
• colonial efforts of Spanish, British, Americans, Canadians
  
• destroyed world Indians created by 1500

major themes:

• 1. disease
• 2. trade
• 3. Christianity & conversion
• 4. land
• 5. conflict among European nations
• 6. conflict among Indian people
• 7. resistance to incursion
• 8. exploration
• 9. collection of information
• 10. comparative conquests

Don Juan de Onate letter:

• Spanish: conquered American west 200 years before British
• conquest: taxation, servitude, slavery, land grants, resistance, military force, mixed populations
  
• religious & economic conquest
• war justified if natives weren't Christianized
• northern colonists empowered
• natives were forced to work in mines
• slavery, fundamental to the economy
• threat of terror for those that didn't submit
• wanted mines & conversions
• Acoma uprising: organized attack on Spanish settlers
• Pueblos vs. the Spanish
• English, less concerned with capturing Indian labor than Spanish

English approach

• 1. separation, not integration
• 2. steal land, not labor
• 3. land cession
• 4. trade relations
• 5. assimilation
• 6. enlarged fur trading routes
• 7. integrated Native economies into a world economy
• 8. based on commercial relationships
• 9. used Indian labor not slave labor
• worst exposures: international marketplace, intertribal competition, liquor and guns

Settlements

• British had to claim land they occupied
• 1. treaty negotiations
  
• 2. policed settlers @ frontier
• 3. Proclamation: temporary boundary line, monopoly on future lands for crown, native right to lands they occupied
• 4. Continental Congress: can't make settlement on lands claimed by Indians without authority of Congress
• 5. no thought of pluralistic society-cohabitation of Indians & whites

Documents:

• 1. Royal Proclamation of 1763
• 2. Onate Acoma
• 3. Juan de Oñate statue by Reynaldo Rivera

Handout: Black Elk’s Significance in American Culture

Black Elk’s Significance in American Culture 

a. religious & historical significance of Nicholas Black Elk
b. “creative & courageous confrontation with Christianity and with the challenges of modernity
c. “the greatest religious thinker yet produced by native North America”
d. created an “authentic Lakota Christianity” 
e. revitalized the traditional Lakota religion 
f. identified points of commonality between Christianity and Lakota religion
g. showed how Christianity could be embraced without sacrificing Lakota identity
h. worked to reinvigorate the Sun Dance, and to reinstate it as the centerpiece of Lakota religion 
i. Black Elk was significant as a religious leader
j. helps stimulate interest in native religions 
k. concern for “greening” and environmental issues
l. offers spiritual insight and attentiveness to the natural world
m. the natural world is a vehicle for religious experience
n. Indians are regarded as noble savages who enjoy an original relationship with the spiritual powers of nature, free from the corruptions of civilization 
o. exemplifies environmental stewardship & ecospirituality 
p. helped natives become spiritual authorities and not outsiders in American culture
q. natives as romantic images-problematic
r. Native Americans have become religious experts and teachers

Editors Contribution
1. Black Elk was treated as a tragic figure 
2. BE’s way of life was treated as a description of a noble way of life that had vanished forever
3. Black Elk held true to the Lakota religion, not appreciated by the author 
4. BE’s contribution to the world-not taken seriously by the editor
5. BE’s vision treated literally, although could had been a worldview that developed over the course of his lifetime
6. BE’s conveyance to Neihardt: significant part of its development & realization 
7. Neihardt didn’t consider that the stories BE told about the vision & life of his people could be a manifestation of an ongoing vitality of Lakota culture
8. lens: believed N.A. societies were internally coherent cultural systems in which religion played a central role 
9. cultural relativism of the 1930s was an improvement over defending that Anglo Saxons were of the highest moral & intellectual authority
10. native culture wasn’t considered historically 
11. complex relationships were involved in their cultural change & ongoing vitality
12. many parts of the story are authentic 
13. Longfellow’s Hiawatha didn’t have much basis in Native American reality 
14. Niehardt wanted to learn about the Lakota people & the Ghost Dance ceremonies


Since the 1960s
1. Alice Beck Kehoe, wrote The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory & Revitalization
a. discussed the role of the Ghost Dance in the 1890 massacre of Big Foot’s band of Lakota people beside Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota
b. the Wounded Knee Massacre site was later occupied by members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1973, a new warrior society in a struggle for Indian rights
c. AIM activists read Black Elk Speaks to learn about the religious traditions of their ancestors
d. young people that were disaffected by the US government’s policies in Vietnam, racism, & complacency of middle class Americans were exposed to Black Elks 
e. Black Elk, first major Native-influenced text to be studied in mainstream Religion courses
f. interest in alternative religions & alternative forms of spirituality 
g. more publications focusing on mistreatment of Indians by the US government were created
h. it is critically sophisticated to gain insights from Black Elk speaks because of the author’s influence 

Main points
1. story about the mistreatment of the Lakota people by the US government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries 
2. & about the efforts of Black Elk and others to preserve their religion and culture against hostile forces 
3. indictment of stupidity and cruelty of Americans who made native lives miserable 
4. tribute to a small ethnic group that defended their religion & culture against great odds
5. about planting and development of native ideas within the religious imaginations of millions of Americans 
6. Black Elk wanted to revitalize Lakota religion and promote its relevance for modern life 

Black Elk In The Context of Long-standing Trends in American Cultural History
1. Black Elk is popular
2. signals some important shifts in American thought
3. Natives have been admired for centuries 
4. when natives became less of a military threat, they became more admired
5. when technology & industry distanced people from the land, people admired Indians more 
6. low levels of hostility against native groups
7. high levels of concern about the natural environment & its degradation 
8. positive images as simple and wholesome 
9. After French & Indian Wars, historians, playwrights, novelists, poets, visual artists portrayed natives as noble savages
10. In America: the Indian warrior was a symbol of fierce pride, a spirit of independence, a down-to-earth intelligence and a natural skillfulness 
11. Transcendentalist movement: celebrated natives for their practical knowledge about the natural world & for their immediate and childlike acquaintance with nature’s spiritual powers 
12. Transcendentalists shaped romantic stereotypes about Native Americans
13. their intellectual and emotional climate celebrated nature as a primary source of religious experience 
14. grew out of the transcendental idealism advanced by Immanuel Kant 
a. Goethe, Wordsworth, Carlyle, de Staal, Cousin-equated intuition with religious impilse
b. believed religious institutions had a stultifying effect on religious inspiration 
c. thought the sublime parts of nature were the best means of inspiration 
d. reflected Plato’s ideas that material reality reflects ideal truths
e. Augustine-nature was evil because of the fall
f. Puritans shaped Native Americans as savage beasts
g. transcendentalism- Thoreau & Ralph Waldo Emerson

Emerson
1. nature was a living bible of spiritual revelations & signs
2. you become a “particle of God” 
3. absence of egoism 
4. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Francis Parkman, James Fenimore Cooper, Emily Dickinson, Walt Whitman, Annie Dillard, Wendall Berry, Peter Matthiessen, Gary Snyder, N. Scott Momaday
5. God in nature, already common in the American literary tradition 
6. the Lakota people’s resisting of American culture-countercultural
7. counterculturalism is an important element of American culture itself
8. counter-culture: experiencing God in nature
9. anti-institutional
10. Indians: countercultural protest, natural wisdom, spiritual insight
11. Thoreau tried to live like an Indian 
12. Thoreau hired Indians to be his guides to nature
13. John Brown & Walt Whitman influenced Thoreau 
14. Native religious beliefs were diverse 
15. Neihardt presented Indian culture & Western civilization as irreconcilable 

Black Elk Speaks and the Re-creation of American Culture
1. Black Elk: viewed as a religious leader
2. Native American religion is part of North American religion 
3. Native Americans participated in motion pictures & activities for financial gain
4. the majority of Native Americans have been deeply influenced by Christianity 
5. Sacred Pipe: symbolizes Lakota spiritual life 
6. belief in a true God is central to Native spirituality & Christianity
7. 7 rituals mirrored the 7 sacraments of Roman Catholicism
8. water symbolized vitality for the Lakota people
9. doesn’t believe the nature world is corrupt or that spiritual purification must renounce nature or the flesh
10. need forgiveness for inattention or lack of care for the natural world
11. stresses personal religious experience & intuition
12. Black Elk’s: less countercultural. less hostile to Christianity, more prosocial, more community oriented than transcendentalism
13. overcomes transcendentalism’s savagism
14. represents the religious achievements & religious authority of Native Americans and the emergence of their religious thought as a highly respected element of American culture 

The Appointment of Don Juan de Onate as Governor/Captain General of New Mexico

The Appointment of Don Juan de Onate as Governor/Captain General of New Mexico
1. occurred October 21st, 1595
2. personal qualities/merits/service in the war against the Chichimecan Indians 
3. appointed governor, captain general, caudillon (political/military leader), discoverer, & pacifier of the provinces of New Mexico
4. bring settlers, armed forces, baggage, equipment, munitions into New Mexico
5. told to treat the natives with peace, friendship, and good treatment & introduce them to the Gospel (with GUNs)
6. try to get the Indians to honor the friars and listen to their teachings
7. peaceful gestures will make the Indians more likely to become Christians

The Royal Proclamation, Oct. 7, 1763

The Royal Proclamation, Oct. 7, 1763

1. acquired land in America
2. treaty of the peace was concluded @ Paris
3. want to promote commerce, manufacturing, and navigation 
4. Four New Governments set up: Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, Grenada
a. governors of those territories can’t grant warrants/patents
b. Indians can use lands outside of territory
c. Hudson’s Bay Company held substantial pieces of land
d. subjects must ask for permission to undertake new purchases/settlements
e. inappropriate occupation of Indian lands isn’t allowed 
f. free & open trade with Indians
g. lays out conditions for licenses
h. military will apprehend traitors, murderers, felons

Surviving Marginalization, 1890s-1920, Ch. 9, through page 263

Surviving Marginalization, 1890s-1920 
1. natives were seen as insignificant in Canada & in USA 
a. boarding schools disrupted family relations
b. damaged culture & language
c. trained Indian students for non-existent jobs
d. mixed young people from various tribes together
e. W. Canada: natives joined trade unions to participate in economic life
f. Society of American Indians: pantribal organization
g. natives from reservations experienced bitter prejudice
h. Navajos learned white legal practices while conservative Hopis retained traditional cultural practices
i. politicians became increasingly anti-Indian by 1900
j. only a white teacher could “teach the Indian out of the students”
k. natives were unwilling to make long range plans
l. Pueblos conservatism limited their ability to acculturate
m. force could be used to send natives to boarding schools
n. Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians, non-denominational schools were set up
o. all aspects of Indian’s lives were controlled
p. natives wanted secular, non-church based education but governments wanted churches to take care of those things
q. most Indians were taught at day schools
r. boarding schools were more efficient
s. 1870s: Hampton Institute in Virginia & the Carlisle Indian school in Pennsylvania offered off-reservation secondary schooling
t. residential schools could break down tribal identity, customs & language
u. Stanley Hill, wanted Indian children taught in their native languages
v. Leupp, classes should be held outside 
w. Leupp tried to get kids into day schools & close boarding schools
y. the principal of the Hampton Institute believed natives were intellectually inferior to whites
z. Reel, superintendent on Indian education, taught practical skills like bed-making & simple plowing

1. 1905, Leupp establishes an Indian Employment Office
2. natives did unskilled, manual labor jobs
3. 1909, Robert Valentine & Cato Sells: successors to Leupp
4. 1916: Sells established primary, prevocational & vocational schools
5. 1891, Commissioner Thomas Jefferson Morgan integrated native schools 
6. Morgan demanded equal treatment for Indian children, 4 of 45 districts remained

Institutionalized Paternalism, p. 250
1. bureaucrats chipped away at Indian self sufficiency & feelings of competence
2. Trutch: natives lacked legal rights to the land
3. Indian’s title to the land was denied
4. BC officials tricked Ottawa into accepting limited future land grants for tribal reserves
5. 1887, Indians became very angry about unjust BC policies
6. Nishga & Tsimshian chiefs visited government leaders in Victoria
a. asked for more land & access to documents published a decade earlier that would support their case
b. Victoria refused to accept any tribal land claims
c. 1900: Canadian bureaucrats sought to reduce the Indian land base whenever possible in order to open S. Saskatchewan & Alberta
d.1902, Indians objected to selling any of their land
e. Dawes Act, allowed federal bureaucrats to separate Indians from much of their land base
f. 1890-1910: the tribal land base shrunk considerably
g. Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, government COULD move ahead rapidly
h. 1880s-WWI, collapse in tribal populations in Plains & Blood tribes
i. 1912, steady increase in Indians in Canada
j. the Census Bureau did not cooperate fully: many people counted twice or not at all
k. 1900: 237,000 natives

254 Indian Participation In World War I
1. 1914, Canadian Indians had to hunt more for food, fur trading went down
a. noncitizen Indians were exempted from military service
b. Sam Hughes, minister of militia & defense permitted Indians to enlist
c. 35% of eligible Indians enlisted
d. 1915, battalion from the Six Nations Reserve in Ontario
e. 1916, Six Nations battalion was kept intact
f. enlistment officials didn’t keep ethnic or racial data
g. some Indians enlisted out of loyalty to the king
h. Indians joined the reserves to escape poverty & boredom
i. Indians that joined the army gained the right to vote without the unpopular terms of enfranchisement
j. 1917, Parliament passed the Military Service Act, mandating the registration of all young men for the draft

2. Indians in US were in worse shape
a. the US stayed out of the war until 1917
b. Congressmen Carl Hayden(AZ) promoted all-Indian militia units
c. American Indian magazine denounced segregation
d. Oklahoma Indians, preferred segregated units
e. Indian participation in the war effort was high
f. The Selective Service Act of May 18th, 1917 applied to all citizens, applied to a majority of Indians
g. war Commissioner Cato Sells bragged that at least 6,000 of the 18,000 men in the service had enlisted
h. Gosiutes, Shoshones, Utes, Navajos, Mission Indians opposed the draft
i. most of the eligible Gosiutes ended up registering
j. Indian resistance to registering was partly confusion 
k. tribal elders blessed would-be soldiers
l. Sells believed the military would civilize the Indians

Increasing Agricultural Efforts, Decreasing Land
1. natives served in the armed forces
2. bureaucrats looked to the tribes for increased food production
3. 1914, Duncan Scott persuaded the Indians to increase their food & livestock production
4. 1918, Scott wanted boarding school students as laborers on nearby farms
5. 1917, the Greater Production effort to increase crop size even more was launched
6. tribes who refused to sell their surplus land would have to lease it to white farmers or ranchers
7. government could spend bank funds to increase crop/livestock production
8. William Graham, longtime bureaucrat, supervised agricultural production efforts on the reserves in the prairie provinces
9. bureaucrats were in control of reserve lands with little checks on their actions
10. 1918, the Blood Tribe didn’t want to sell 90,000 acres of land
11. fraud, intimidation & bribery to achieve the bureaucrat’s goals
12. tribal people lost 1/3 of their production in 2 years
13. economic potential of the land was damaged
14. 1917 Soldier Settlement Act, resulted in further land losses
15. 160 acres of dominion owned land
16. veterans could acquire land in the “Railway Belt”
17. 1919, New Soldier Settlement Act, 160 acres of land to former servicemen, a 1906 amendment kept Indians from being able to use it
18. 1/10 Indian applicants got loans for land purchases
19. 1920s, worldwide drop in agricultural prices
20. a) soil conservation, b) proper choice of crops, c) ways to raise more food per acre
21. bureaucratic agents said there was more unused land than their actually was
22. Sells, reported large scale increases in Indian acreage
23. “By 1920 tribal people in both the United States and Canada had endured continued cultural, economic, and demographic battering by the societies in both countries. Government policies reduced the land base of many groups, as fraud and bribery often accomplished what formal actions did not. World War I led some Indians to leave their reservations for military service, but when the conflict ended they returned home to face increased poverty. Veteran’s benefits helped many young men, but rarely did tribal members get much assistance. The continuing efforts of educators, missionaries, and bureaucrats hurt tribes more than helping them. As a result, the postwar decades would bring even more difficulties and problems for reserve dwellers.”(263) 

Chapter 8, Societies Under Siege, 1860s-1890s, Ch. VIII, p. 206 to 242

Chapter 8, Societies Under Siege, 1860s-1890s

206 to 242

1. Toohool. argued with the one-armed general
2. solidiers demand Nez Perce vacate the Wallowa Valley in Oregon
3. 30 days to move property & livestock or army would move them to a reservation
4. 1877, Nez Perce flight to Canada 
5. farmers, miners, merchant, hunters, bureaucrats hurt Indians
6. bitter interracial conflict
7. government officials told them what to do
8. Mountees kept the peace
9. Canada: Metis (French/Indian) & English-Scots-Indian 
10. Canada recognized some of the plains groups
11. some tribal people resorted to warfare to protect their lands & customs
12. few violent confrontations-Canada
13. Kickapoos fled from S. Texas into N. Mexico
14. natives see whites as land thieves & speculators
15. Gradual Civilization Act, cultural suicide
16. prize sights given to commercial fisherman
17. Indian traditionalists became Catholics but kept native economic practices
18. Canadian Indians understood their legal rights
19. mines offered the Indians nothing 
20. white’s actions brought Indian retaliation
21. 1863, Chilcotin Indians attacked ferry operator, wrecked the ferry, took powder & lead 
22. Victoria residents demanded military action
23. white aggression WAS pronounced in Canada as well
24. British granted more autonomy to their colonies
25. 1867, William Seward, American secretary of state purchased Alaska from Russia
26. North West “Mountees”: military, police, & civil governmental functions
27. Canada: protect tribal groups, try to assimilate them
28. Enfranchisement Act of 1869, increase governmental interference
29. less than 1/4 heritage, excluded from tribal membership
30. Canada tried to push tribal people into the cultural mainstream
31. federal officers controlled tribal affairs
32. treaties didn’t prevent violence-1860s
33. Civil war encouraged tribal migration
34. North & South wanted Indian troops
35. “Great Sioux War” result of drinking, killed farm family in central Minnesota
36. 1864, raiding bands of Sioux, Pawnees, Cheyennes, Arapahos cleared many pioneers from the central plains
37. Colorado militia- Sand Creek Massacre
38. 1865, The Doolittle Commission
39. Indians experienced hardship because of loss of Buffalo
40. “learn white man’s way if they want their children to survive.”
41. natives didn’t want to be put on reservations
42. Treaty of Medicine Lodge: peace, surrender hunting territories, live on assigned reservations, accept white man’s instruction in farming
43. 1868, Treaty of Fort Laramie
44. Cheyenne raids in Kansas
45. Quaker policy in Indian Office under Uysses Grant
46. 1870s, some Indian agents appointed to Indian Office
47. Grant appointed Parker, a Seneca
48. 1871, instead of treaties, executive orders
49. Indians & settlers didn’t understand Vincent The Good’s efforts
50. 1871, Congress deadlocked with Indian affairs
51. Modoc War, 1872, Red River War, 1874 & Nez Perce in 1877, Ute War of 1879
52. George Custer into Black Hills, Sioux wanted to remove the miners, 
53. Custer led soldiers. miners & reporters to the Black Hills, 
54. 1876, Custer led a large part of the 7th Cavalry Regiment to its destruction on the banks of the Little Bighorn/ Greasy Grass River (Indian name)
55. Custer met full force of Indian tribes but thought only 150 natives would be there
56. Gall, Hump, Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull destroyed most of Custer’s immediate command
57. natives had strong connections to their homelands
58. few accepted the natives right to continue living a traditional lifestyle
59. little thought to where natives should live
60. those who supported acculturation programs failed to accept them as equals

Confrontation On The Canadian Plains
1. US + tribal people fought bloody wars in the decades after 1860
2. Canada usually avoided major confrontation & bloodshed
3. Red River War (1869-70) & Riel-led-Metis(1885-86)
4. governments threatened their land base & economic survival
5. much social prejudice against native customs, language, sense of independence
6. 1869, Rupert’s land became part of Canada
7. 1869, Enfranchisement Act: incorporated existing rules about tribal membership & protection for native lands
8. Metis lived in Manitoba, S. of Lake Winnipeg
a. maintained homes & small farms along the Red & Assiniboine Rivers
b. Canada assumed control of the area
c. William Dougall, newly appointed governor of Rupert’s land arrived
d. Ottawa didn’t provide local participation in governing the region
e. natives organize under Louis Riel Jr. to proclaim their own local government, establish courts & block Canadian penetration
f. Manitoba Act reserved 1.4M acres of land for the next generation of Metis
g. Metis had a claim to aboriginal title to their land, classed as a distinct people
h. 1870: 1) status Indians, 2) non status Indians, 3) Metis, 4) Inuit (Eskimos)
i. 1820s, US regulators gave individual alotments of land to natives
j. both nations used treaties and other agreements to establish tribal land claims
k. Prarie du Chien, called for establishing half breed reservations in Minnesota & in E. Nebraska
l. 1871, Canada: treaties on hunting rights, annuities, schools, tools, farm equipment, a medicine chest
m. 1880s: Canadian government & natives stopped getting along
n. North W. Mounted Police: based on Royal Irish Constabulary, introduced in 1873, 
-hoped to keep peace
-regulate the introduction of alcohol
-discourage American freebooters from crossing the Montana border
o. Mountees had civil/military authority: local justice of the peace to military actions
p. 1880s, buffalo herds were gone to a point where natives had to change their economy
q. Cree/Blackfoot: leader Big Bear was suspicious of whites, wanted none of the Queen’s presents, 
r. Crowfoot, natives could not depend on buffalo hunting for long
s. Plains people sold horses, ate gophers, antelope, mice
t. Ottawa officials broke provisions of the 1876 treaty, wouldn’t give natives the lands they desired & denied the bands food needed for survival
u. 1884: natives protest the inadequacy of government actions
v. 1885: violence erupted in the plains, leader MacDonald wasn’t concerned about Western issues
w. 1869: government mishandled Metis land claims
y. the government hanged Riel, head negotiator
z. Poundmaker & Big Maker had tried to discourage the fighting but were jailed anyway

Educating For Enfranchisement
a. government agents, missionaries, schoolteachers, bureaucrats demanded natives become sedentary farmers
b. bureaucrats decided to put natives in isolation to speed their absorption into American/Canadian society 
c. natives didn’t have a model to emulate
d. 1876, 1st Indian Act in the Parliament, tried to achieve goals of the Enfranchisement Act of 1869
e. Indian department wanted to bread up reserves, assign land to individuals, begin & operate schools & force enfrancisement on unwilling people
f. 1884, Elk v. Wilkins, US Supreme Court ruled that natives were not able to get citizenship
g. the Canadian government DID give natives full rights of citizenship
h. Canadians wanted natives to become lawyers, medical doctors, ministers & priests
i. missionaries/tribal funds paid operational costs for native schools
j. 1875, the Dominican government provided a grant of $2,000 for Indian education
k. Ontario schools, poor native attendance 
l. sporadic attendance frustrated teacher
m. bonuses for students with good attendance?
n. Indian’s actions determined school success 
o. 1880s, some tribes refused to pay for schools
p. natives: suspicious of whites & their institutions
q. Plains tribes didn’t want religion taught to their children
r. Indians resisted acculturation openly & covertly
s. natives viewed boarding schools as a disruption of family/village life
t. natives didn’t believe in corporeal punishment
u. ceremonies: tribal elders, chiefs, shamans, adults instructed children in traditional native customs
v. 1884: government required attendance for all Indian children between 7 & 15
w. Western tribes preferred to hunt, trap, fish & gather
y. Indian Act of 1890, Indians could only hunt for part of the year
z. enforcement remained sporadic

Page 229
1. natives didn’t want to accept the beliefs/customs of the whites
2. students received trading in printing, tinsmithing, carpentry, bootmaking, tailoring, farming
3. some smart students might become teachers or doctors, small #
4. native students had to speak English, cut their hair, wear European style clothing, & changed their recreation
5. most of the students returned to the reserves

Education of the Cherokee Nation
1. the Cherokee National Council began operating schools
2. Male & Female Seminaries for highly structured education
3. natives operated 64 schools, graduates became teachers
4. schools gave no manual training classes
5. religious groups played a small role
6. the Office of Indian affairs believed that natives must learn English
7. officials kept the tribes separated
8. Richard Pratt founded the Carlisle Indian School, Indian prisoners were brought to a black school in Virginia
a. young people had to be integrated immediately
b. the schools often failed to counter the student’s strong cultural strength
c. many students returned to home determined to remain Indians 
d. students became farmers, stock-raisers, skilled laborers, merchants, professionals. Few worked in unskilled positions
e. government service provided many jobs for boarding school graduates
f. job holders were tied into the cash economy
g. the Field Matron Service came to employ Indian women as reservation workers
h. tried to teach Indian women how to run a middle-class household

Missionaries & Reformers (p. 232) 
a. missionaries tried to spread Christianity + increase acculturation
b. William Duncan, Anglican Church Missionary Society to British Columbia, got fifty converts to found a new community
c. courthouse, gail, school, town hall, public reading room & museum were erected
d. Duncan’s ego grew > missionary society split with him
e. natives didn’t like industrial labor: sawmill, cannery, soap factory, small businesses
f. a nativist movement split Duncan’s followers, went to Alaska, founded a community of the same name
g. the Oblates of the RC Church & the Methodists staffed schools throughout the Canadian West
h. 1880s, coercion to achieve particular goals
i. Indian Act of 1884, attacked tribal beliefs/practices
j. 1892: officials thought a Sun Dance event would not be held again, which was held again. 
k. white officials tried to keep natives on reserves but the Mounted Police ignored the statutes
l. acculturation might take generations
m. Women’s National Indian Association & the Indian Right’s Association worked with Board of Indian Commissioners as watchdog groups to oversee the federal treatment of Indians
n. no critical dissent in Canada regarding Indian affairs
o. 1870s: Nebraska Poncas protested
p. Helen Hunt Jackson helped publicize the government’s difficulties with the tribal people, published “A Century Of Dishonor.” raised public awareness when she sent it to every member of Congress
q. tried to end tribalism
r. if Indians were given land, they might adopt the white practice of individual ownership...?
s. if white farmers lived next door, Indians would learn to farm...?
t. 1860s: unsuccessful enfranchisement program in Canada
u. Dawes Severalty Act, gave the president authority to allot reservations
v. 25 years of occupation > Indians received titles to the land
w. surplus land could be placed on the market
y. 1870s, Indian police kept the peace
z. 1883, plural marriages & long hair on men were suppressed > break up tribal/band solidarity + to encourage acculturation

American Efforts At Acculturation
1. white man’s approach to law enforcement & acceptable habits of dress, language, & family matters
2. Canadian post-Confederacy policy tried to bring about rapid acculturation & assimilation of tribal people
3. Canadian officials assumed individualism, personal property, religion, & education would accomplish that goal quickly
4. 1874, Minister of the Interior David Laird wrote that the government should 1) enfranchise Indians, 2) give them an allotment of land from tribal reserves, 3) divide tribal funds among members > 1) promote individual skills natives needed, 2) reduce tribal holdings & reduce native attachment to tribes
a. the 1876 Indian Act took a different approach
b. Indians needed to be able to write English or French to gain enfranchisement + be free of debt & have “good moral character.”
c. applied only to the eastern tribes
d. Canadians believed natives could only do small-scale agriculture
e. 1870s/1880s: Laird wanted family plots near white settlements
f. Indians WANTED to share their land with their tribe
g. 1879: buffalo hunting over > cattle-raising over farming?
h. natives rarely received much help with seed, equipment, & livestock
i. natives needed a permit to sell their crops
j. the Blackfoots began raising cattle in Alberta
k. US 1862 Homestead Act, 160 acre plots, 
l. Indian Homestead Law: opened land to reservation dwellers
m. stock-raising was more practical than farming for western tribes
n. 1875, Gen. Mackenzie purchased cattle & sheep from the Comanche & Kiowa people when people lost battle
o. Indians didn’t have horses to herd cattle, lost or killed many of their animals
p. 3 or 4 year terms for Head Of Indian Affairs
q. 10 year terms made administrative heads complacent

Revitalization & Religious Movements
a. natives turned inward to their cultural/religious practices
b. vision quests, wearing blankets & long hair, continued
c. Dreamer religion, long periods of meditation, founded by Smohalla in the 1850s
d. the Dreamer religion condemned white farming
e. 1881, Squsachtun founded the Indian Shaker religion
-experienced visiting “heaven”
-tried to teach natives how to overcome the difficulties of reservation life
-nervous twitchings, casting off evil thoughts & acts
-federal agents tried to arrest him but they were not successful
f. the Ghost Dance religion, orig. from the visions of Tavibo, a Nevada Paiute, much more widespread
-invading whites would be destroyed in a massive earthquake
-his son Jack Wilson continued preaching the Ghost Dance Religion
-return to Indian practices: 1) frequent bathing, 2) living plainly, 3) avoiding alcohol, 4) prohibiting mourning (all dead Indians would return)
-the worshippers prayed, meditated & danced for up for 5 days > mild group hypnosis
g. the Sioux developed a militant anti-white platform
h. the Ghost Dance developed a secret society with holy clothes to keep warriors safe from the soldier’s bullets
i. 1890s, Sitting Bull was killed
j. soon thereafter Big Foot’s followers were massacred at Wounded Knee
k. high level of Indian unhappiness, low rate of success for acculturation
l. Western approach: education, religion, agriculture, segregated reservations, individual landholdings
m. US army manned settlement/outposts in the West
n. government policies sought to destroy the native’s identity
o. tension between bureaucrats to impose cultural values & natives to retain their values still continues today

Chapter Seven, Native American History, Nichols, p. 174 to 206

Chapter Seven, Native American History 

Cultural Persistence, Physical Retreat, 1820s-1860s

1. Peter Jones, mixed race Mississauga, became a Methodist Christian
2. acculturation/ adopting white man’s culture was frightening for natives
3. natives lost unity, cultural strength, leadership
4. had to accept Anglo-American education, religion, technology and control of their lives
5. natives were faced with an ever-narrowing set of choices for their lives
6. larger populations of whites & natives + agricultural based subsistence in USA made land struggles bitter
7. In Canada, natives weren’t removed from their land as much as in USA
8. Canada: Metis/country-born people were recognized as a legal group
9. Canada: 1812: 500,000 whites, 1867: 2,500,000 whites
10. USA: 1815: 7,500,000, 1865: 30,000,000
11. tribal people E. of Mississippi: 200,000 to 2,000 people in isolated parts of Florida, North Carolina, Mississippi, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin
12.natives served as military allies in Canada & were an important part of the fur trade
13. Henry Darling: tribes had to be protected from plunder & persecution
14. Indians needed full government support to avoid becoming paupers & criminals who might disrupt colonial society
15. acculturation program: migratory peoples would get village sites, natives would get help building homes & would get the tools & seeds for farming
16. Indian land was sold to pay for the project
17. Canada was not yet an independent nation
18. the Aborigines Protection Society, Protestant missionaries had influence on the dealings with the Indians
19. Canadian/British authorities wanted to cut local costs & avoid violence
20. white paternalism, determination to impose cultural dominance
21. potential war with USA: ended in 1815, all educational activities among the Indians had failed
22. Indians refused to let their children attend the small schools regularly because they moved about in seasonal cycles of planting, hunting, fishing, harvesting
23. Micmac: wanted schools to teach tribal culture/language
24. English tried to profit economically & sexually from the Indian children

The Beginning Of Westward Removal
1. where would tribes live when learning a new culture?
2. 1824: missionaries got $, 21 schools set up
3. Monroe: federal authorities had no obligation to force Indians west against their will
4. Christian lessons of personal worth, redemption & hope found eager listeners
5. George Guess developed a writing system for Cherokees-revitalized/divided society
6. 1825: President Monroe proposed voluntary removal
7. natives were pushed out of their traditional homelands in the east
8. frontiersmen wanted natives to surrender their lands and move west
9. frontiersmen accused/blamed all kinds of crimes: stolen their livestock, hunted on their property
10. state authorities from Georgia to Illinois wanted the federal government to remove the tribes
11. 1831: Cherokee v. Georgia, Worcester v. Georgia: Cherokee & supporters appealed to the US Supreme Court-in vain...
12. John Marshall: natives lacked an independent political status, second appeal: the court ruled against Georgia
13. 1833: some tribal leaders realized they couldn’t stay in Georgia, Chief John Ross wouldn’t accept an agreement, 
14. 1835: Senate decided to remove Indians
15. natives created a death penalty for those who sold tribal lands to whites
16. Trail of Tears, natives forced to move west of Mississippi
17. Chickasaws: last major southern tribe to accept removal
18. Levi Colbert rejected federal demands
19. 1827: Thomas McKenney, commissioner of Indian affairs visited the Chickasaws for informal talks
20. natives needed a place with resources like Alabama/Missippi
21. visited Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma but natives couldn’t agree
22. 1830: Congress passed an Indian Removal Act
23. states imposed heavy fines/imprisonment on native leaders that dared exercise their authority & abolished all tribal laws
24. Andrew Jackson would not help the natives
25. 1837: natives were removed
26. Vermillion Kickapoos avoided forced migration for awhile
27. Kickapoos’ leader Kenekuk preached against alcohol & violence
28. The Black Hawk War of 1832 > citizens of Illinois wanted natives kicked out
29. Illinois/Iowa: Sauk/Mesquakie leaders split over surrendering their homeland & moving west
30. natives were forced into Iowa, Black Hawk led 2,000 back into Illinois
31. Illinois militias attacked Black Hawk, he believed the return would be peaceful
32. Black Hawk/band leaders were sent to prison
33. Joseph Brant led a significant portion of the Six Nations across the border into Canada
34. Potawatomi of Michigan/Illinois chose to migrate north instead of forced removal
35. many Potawatomi natives moved into Canada (Ilinois, Indiana, S. Michigan > Ontario)

The Debate Over Assimilation p. 184
1. 1830s: supporters of the removal triumphed
2. incorporation of tribal people into general society-didn’t occur
3. Henry Clay: natives were inferior
4. Lewis Cass, Secretary of war, natives had not acculturated well
5. racial/genetic changes were needed?
6. natives should live west of Arkansas & Missouri
7. natives should have a territorial government with a governor, secretary, agents for tribes, marshal, prosecuting attorney, and a court system-Canadian’s didn’t suggest this
8. British expanded support for schools, missions, instruction in white-style farming
9. the Canadian government imposed wardship on the Indians in order to cut costs
10. Indian relations in Quebec were quiet for a decade
11. Indians were used as interpreters, clerks. timber rangers & laborers @ the evolving settlements in Canada
12. missionaries/tribal leaders built churches
13. the Indian land base was reduced
14. rebellions in 1837
15. The Act of Union combined Upper & Lower Canada in 1841
16. 1820s, Lieutenant governor of upper Canada, Maitland assisted the Mississaugas to establish a village near York
17. natives had comfortable houses with furniture & cooking utensils
18. 1824: primary schools taught whites and natives
19. 1829: Methodists operated 7 schools, taught 251 native children
20. sedentary agriculture, education, & Christianity were introduced
21. The Mohawk Institute provided vocational training to the students
22. boys learned tailoring/carpentry, girls learned spinning/weaving
23. Sir John Colborne decided to establish schools @ Coldwater & at the Narrows at Lake Simcoe
24. Ojibwa people lived by hunting, fishing & gathering
25. Methodists succeeded with help of Indian missionaries & local leaders
26. 1860s: few whites/natives really wanted to merge societies
27. students learned quickly when taught in their native language
28. tribal authorities had little control over what whites taught the children
29. boys learned active participation in the economy, girls learned domestic skills
30. native children learned to read the Bible and copied lines, & learned from dictation
31. natives learned better in mother tongue but whites preferred English
32. schools had large expectations but small budgets & inadequate staff/equipment
33. well-trained/acculturated Indians had little opportunities, whites would only hire Indians for menial tasks
34. Ojibwas wanted little to do with visited missionaries/teachers
35. Wawanosh, didn’t want to abandon the religion of his forefathers

Canadian Debates Over Removal & Legal Status, p. 190
1. some opposition to schools/missions arose @ the highest levels of government
2. 1836: British authorities wanted a report on economic/social progress of Indians in Upper/Lower Canada
3. Sir Francis Head: denounced the civilization program
4. any attempt to Indians become farmers failed, they just adopted the vices of Europeans
5. the lieutenant governor urged the tribes to cede their land & move to the Manitoulin islands @ the north shore of Lake Huron & Georgian Bay
6. Bond Head persuaded Ojibwa leaders to give up land so other groups could settle there
7. the Wesleyan Methodist Conference in Upper Canada was upset with Bond Head’s policies
8. Bond Head returned to England, little active support for his removal policy in Canada
9. a multi-tribal settlement called Manitowaning & Wikwemiking villages developed
10. 1844: Manit. had a carpenter, blacksmith, mason, cooper, charcoal burner, shoemaker, laborers to instruct the Indians.
11. Manit. community disintegrated

12. clashing tribal customs created turmoil

192
1. the US & Canada had tried varied/even conflicting policies toward the tribal people
2. S. government used military force
3. pioneers seized land, mineral, forest resources
4. Canada: government kept the races separate
5. the tribal people only accepted certain elements of white civilization
6. 1840s: different legal status for native people
7. Supreme Court ruled: natives are domestic dependent nations
8. 1839: Canadian Justice Macaulay, natives are subject to the laws of the land

American justice
1. isolate the tribes

Canadian
1. courts would enforce Indian contracts
2. natives could appeal for redress of personal/property violation
3. civil/criminal courts were open for Indians
4. natives could qualify to vote or hold local offices
5. natives could be plantiffs/defendents
6. integrated into the social/legal structure of society
7. Brant had title to land on the Grand River, acted like lands belonged to him
8. government moved to claim Phelp’s land
9. natives were subject to the laws of Canada
10. Bagot Report, on acculturation
11. categories: 1) people of Indian blood, 2) people married to Indians & living in tribes & people adopted into the tribe
12. surveyors staked claims on natives
13. Montreal Mining claimed 180 acres of land
14. 1848, natives had valid complaints
15. the Indians raided the mine company
16. natives wanted hunting/fishing rights protected
17. Robinson/Superior and Robinson/Huron treaties were signed
18. Nova Scotia: colonists said natives posed a threat
19. white parents didn’t want their children exposed to natives, natives didn’t want Indian children exposed to white culture
20. blight struck all the farming in the province
21. 1859: squatters could purchase land if natives approved
22. Micmacs, outcast. Workers as hunters, guides & producers of crafts
23. Canada East: French speaking
24. Protestants & Catholics fought to teach natives
25. Far West: British Columbia
26. large populations, strong defense, 
27. misunderstanding, violence, demand for native resources
28. Spanish & Russians explored the Pacific Coast
29. Hudson Bay company spread into Northwest, otter-pelts had always been traded with Europeans
30. headquarters moved to Fort Victoria, Vancouver
31. 1849: trade monopoly for Hudson Bay Company
32.1850, Robinson met with Ojibwa leaders over land dispute
33. Robinson-Superior & Robinson/Huron treaties of 1850s: obtained more land than earlier treaties
34. 1867, provinces held more power than the individual states in the north
35. Nova Scotia: colonists saw natives as unstable people
36. Chief Paussamigh Pemmeenswett appealed for help to Queen Victoria in 1841
37. Canada East, French speaking
38. bitter violence in Washington & Oregon
39. 1864, protection for local reserves vanished quickly
40. Canada’s legislature passed an act for the Gradual Civilization of the Indian Tribes in the Canadas
a. open attack on tribalism
b. tribes were destroyed as identifiable units
c. Indian bands would become Canadian citizens
d. band leaders didn’t want native culture changed
e. government demanded complete assimilation 

US Expansion westward, p. 200
1. 1830s, removal of Indians
2. Indian frontier: beyond Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, E. of Mexican territory
3. miscalculation: dramatic increases in territory, Indian cultural strength, Westerner’s preconceived notions
4. vastly underfunded Indian programs
5. E. tribes: hunting > farming, difficult shift
6. natives worked in gold-mining camps
7. 49ers, interracial violence
8. Beale, set up 5 reservations on highly desirable land
9. 1853, Washington became a separate territory
10. small reserves for local people
11. stole Texas, Oregon, California, Southwest
12. whites scared off Indian’s bison
13. 1848, military escorts for whites traveling west
14. The Fort Laramie Treaty, specified tribal lands in the West for the 1st time
15. treaties took Indian land

Ethics & Responsibilities In Writing American Indian History

American Indian History Or Non-Indian Perceptions Of American Indian History? by Angela Cavender Wilson

1. Who did the writing?
2. Why did they do the writing?
3. how would natives interpret, analyze, question the documents 
4. non-Indian perceptions of American Indian History would be a more appropriate field
5. historians need to consult native sources!
6. works that don’t consult natives are not valid academically
7. oral stories/sources should be included in the research

Purposes Of Stories
8. historical/mythological stories provide moral guidelines 
9. remind young & old of appropriate behavior
10. provide a sense of identity & belonging
11. situate community members within their lineage & establish a relationship to the rest of the world
12. source of entertainment & intimacy between story-teller & audience
13. motivations, decision making processes, explain the “why” of the native worldview

Problems
1. natives have little to say about interpretations, analyses & translations, lack of context, lack of understanding
2. discussions should take place with knowlegable elders
3. natives deserve a place to give input for their history

Ethics & Responsibilities In Writing American Indian History
1. professional ethics & scholarly responsibilities are required
2. tribal knowledge must be treated sensitively
3. natives have/ & continue to be exploited
4. natives have been victimized through land fraud & disease. the manipulation of warriors as mercenaries, the abuse of Indian women & the capture of native children to meet enrollment quotas in boarding schools
5. What should American Indian History be called?
6. Is it history by the outsider’s perspective?
7. history is more subjective so ethics are paramount
8. an Anglo American experience lens is wrong because natives were here already!
9. historians ignored many of the dark episodes of native/white relations
10. white supremacy of calling indians heathen & savages is inappropriate
11. the conqueror’s history has been said to be acceptable 
12. 90% of the literature is written by non-natives
13. many newspapers wrote false articles vilifying natives & historians based their books on false evidence. 
14. interest in native American history picked up in the 1950s
15. native history: explore through the lens of culture, community, environment & metaphysics
16. ethnohistory: anthropology & history to study native American history
17. geographers, sociologists and literary writers have written much of the history
18. historical events can be explored through ethnohistory
19. ethnohistory from a Western point of view suppresses the native point of view 
20. Indian activism/militancy in the 1960s peaked interest
21. occupation of Alcatraz (1969), Bureau of Indian Affairs (1972) & Wounded Knee (1973) sparked interest in native history
22. Native history: history of white/native relations, in North America thousands of years before Columbus & oral history is a major part of their history
23. non-written history is disregarded
24. a dependence on documents eliminates other evidence
25. pottery/weapons is part of the social history > religious/philosophical views
26. Indian history: history of many tribes: relations between tribes, history of diplomatic relations
27. critical revisionist history books are needed
28. conscious/subconscious attitudes guide the teaching of native history
29. Indian history set the foundation for American history!
30. whites had to adjust to America the way natives had for centuries
31. society, culture, environment, climate & metaphysical forces shape the history
32. Indians should not be demeaned
33. non-written data should be included
34. scholars need to challenge the one mainstream view
35. religion influences clan makeup, this should be considered
36. internal & external characteristics of the tribes must be explored
37. language, values, kinship relations, infrastructure, societal norms, tribal beliefs & worldview must be considered
38. written sources-almost exclusively produced by non-natives
39. need knowledge about kinship patterns & political organization
40. a tribal viewpoint is needed
41. negative/arrogant histories are not satisfactory
42. respect for natives & their heritage is important
43. certain cultural rituals shouldn’t be written about
44. consider the worldview of each native group
45. mainstream concepts of reality are not adequate
46. view from perspective of: bureaucrats, missionaries, humanitarian groups & tribal
47. there is no single Indian view of Indian history
48. consider physical & spiritual factors in tribal behavior
49. native history is a complex sociocultural/political history to dissect

American Indian Studies Is For Everyone
1. Raven, Coyote: trickster figures
2. death, sickness, pain, culture, institutions: affected
3. room for Indian & non Indian scholars to study this topic
4. native history is part of the broad history of humanity
5. Indian nations are human groups!
6. specific characteristics of Indian cultures must be considered
7. 500 years of colonial domination
8. rigorous study, fieldwork & a sensitive orientation will reward scholars 
9. Indian scholars: advantage of direct access
10. training, motivation, sensitivity, knowledge, and study are needed
11. Indian scholar: background knowledge, access to informants, etc.
12. non-Indian scholars: driven by theoretical issues, should have access to consenting Indian communities
13. scholars must respect community rules & desires to protect certain info from public view
14. anthropologists of the 1960s and 1970s collected info in an indifferent way

What Is The Value Of American Indian Studies?
1. alternative interpretations of US history are needed
2. non-Indian advisors are recommended

Native American History, 10/05/2009

Native American History, 10/05/2009

1. What do founding documents tell us?
2. comparative conquest
3. Christianity/conversion 
4. confederacy: threat? & native strength
5. the French had to be careful, they are outnumbered, they created alliances & a middle ground.
6. inter-tribal conflict 
7. Education: assimilation strategies, literacy
8. paternalism: civilizing mission
9. hunter/gatherer society had to be abolished
10. natives needed to adopt agriculture

Trade
1. completely different way of interacting
2. Exploration: economics or imperial conquest

Problematic factors
1. land: caused strife between white settlers and natives
2. disease: a large portion of the native populations were wiped out by disease

Diseased blankets
was it a deliberate infection on behalf of the settlers

Why do the Spanish need guns?
1. gathering native wealth
2. missionizing
3. exploiting the wealth of the land

Colonization
1. There is forced labor in place
2. Pueblo revolt: removal of all Catholic iconography 
3. Pueblos destroyed the government documents
4. natives wanted their original order, followed particular rules & resisting assimilation efforts. 
5. they were trying to represent colonial power
6. they wanted to undermine the Spanish bureaucracy
7. marriage, births, land: records

Ansel Adams, c. 1941, Acoma Pueblo
1. nomads couldn’t be controlled as easily as agriculturalists
2. Juan de Onate statue by Reynaldo Rivera, 1991, located in New Mexico near Espanola


Timeline
1. 1595: letter
2. 1598: Onate arrives
3. 1599: Acoma Uprising
4. 1680: Pueblo Revolt

Line?
1. separation: reserve
2. Indian country
3. temporary line
4. a limited recognition of sovereignty occurs
5. boundary changes over 19th century
6. Indians have relationships with the federal government

Tribal people
1. not in a hierarchy 
2. no centralized authority

Indians In The US & Canada, p. 14 to 38

1. The French erected a stockade @ Quebec
2. defeated a Mohawk attack
3. poorly made French weapons gave French an advantage over Indians
4. war party traveled South to attack the Senecas
5. French: successful interventions against Mohawks & Senecas
6. If the French made peace with Mohawks, trade might go to Albany
7. If the Mohawks made peace, their position as middlemen would deteriorate
8. Iroquois didn’t have fur-bearing animals in their home area: little opportunity to hunt/trade
9. Hurons believed they were more intelligent than bearded white settlers
10. Hurons believed tools had magical abilities
11. Hurons hated French food, medical practices & called the hospital: the place of death
12. French wanted peace & profits from the fur trade
13. the French met natives as missionaries or traders
14. the Spanish demanded obedience & extracted wealth from the natives
15. Hurons, agricultural people, settlers brought more prosperity
16. St. Lawrence settlement: less than 100 settlers

The Dutch
1. began colonial settlements in present day New York
2. the Dutch West India Company was chartered- modeled on the East India Company
3. Dutch chose locations with care
4. equipped settlers with the goods they needed
5. urged careful diplomacy in dealing with local Indians
6. Dutch operated out of Fort Orange
7. traded with Algonquin Mahicans 
8. the Dutch were successfully ambushed by the Mohawks
9. The Iroquis swept the Mahicans out for a while, 
10. Europeans became neutral with the Mohawks
11. 1640, beavers were hunted to near extinction
12. unregulated Dutch traders, bosch loopers robbed natives & created tribal anger towards the Dutch
13.Kieft’s War: 1642 Dutch troops marched through villages to intimidate natives
14. 1643, Pavonia Massacre of villagers occurred
15. Indians signed a peace settlement
16.rumors of war: strained race relations
17. 1660s: the English seized the New Netherland
18. Gov. Stuyvesant had prisoners sent into slavery, working on Caribbean plantations
19. Dutch depended on the Mohawks for their continued trade successes
20. Dutch had little trading success without the Mohawks
21. the French couldn’t clear much land
22. 1640: Quebec had less than 400 people
23. four Recollect friars came to Christianize the natives
24. Hurons, agricultural settlement
25. Indian culture-no organized religious authority
26. hunter Indians became farmers
27. French used persuasion, Spanish used force
28. they wanted to separate children from the parents
29. ate more European food than they should have
30. difficult to change native’s beliefs
31. missonaries decided to teach adult Indians instead
32. Company of New France: special fishing rights on the St. Lawrence to Indians
33. Iroquois raids occurred frequently
34. Hurons: surplus of corn
35. Hurons became middlemen for the fur trade
36. shamans called Jesuits-witches
37. natives were baptized for a trade advantage
38. 1640, 1/2 Hurons were killed by epidemics
39. bitter disputes between Huron Christians & traditionalists
40. Europeans introduced new diseases with tragic results
41. Apache & Navajo raiders in New Mexico

Florida:
1. Florida: Franciscans had a higher chance of success, larger population density
2. From St. Augustine to Georgia
3. genuine conversions, fear of Europeans reaction, dependence on manufactured goods
4. 1675, Choctaws revolted


Escalating French-Indian Tensions p. 30
1. Iroquoian peoples asked for peace
2. 1645, Mohawks agreed to stop their raids
3. this hurt Iroquois traders
4. Senecas/Mohawks raided the Huron villages
5. Mohawk/Senecas: unopposed, heavily armed
6. less than 400 French inhabitants of Quebec
7. a tiny colonial society emerged
8. Indians had few objections to inter-marriage
9. Indian women only wanted to marry successful French hunters
10. issues in equality, assimilation, segregation, fair treatment
11. Indians gained many rights by becoming converts
12. Champlain rejected Indian legal customs on multiple counts
13. Montreal: few interracial marriages, few conversions
14. Cardinal Richelieu: conversion of Indians was an important goal
15. whites demanded organized corporeal punishment for individual guilt vs. Indians custom of having family members seek revenge
16. Indians didn’t find the French system to their liking
17. processions, pews, schools, hospitals were segregated. Even corpses were buried separately!
18. Jean Baptiste Talon, local intendent, sent traders west in the guise of exploration 
19. Mohawks objected to the encroachment but were involved in a war already
20. moved South of the Great Lakes & to the Mississippi Valley
21. Mohawk Christians were treated well by the French
22. Indians kidnapped to replace deceased relatives or took revenge on captives
23. 1684: Canadians at Fort Frontenac fight against the Iroquois in New York
24. Iroquois dictated a humiliating peace
25. smallpox/measles killed 10% of the French population
26. French began to embrace guerilla warfare instead of marching large groups through forests to be ambushed by the natives
27. Iroquois had to sue for peace
28. Callieres concluded a treaty with the Iroquois 
29. 1701, disease/warfare decimated Indian populations
30. St. Lawrence valley: mostly nomadic hunting/gathering society. French had little effect on them. 
31. the Spanish tried to shape Indian production to their needs
32. Dutch claimed title to the lands but allowed Indian occupancy
33. tribal landownership/sovereignty: tackled differently by French, Spanish, Dutch
34. Recollect fathers entered the St. Lawrence region as quickly as traders
35. Spanish clerics were very unsuccessful in educating native children
36. disease, warfare, dislocation, cultural and economic disruption were endemic
37. The Dutch acted as invaders, wanted to subjugate the native people, took deeds to the land. 
38. the French fought very few wars of conquest, wanted voluntary incorporation of natives into their society
39. The Spanish assumed a right to dominate Indian peoples & demanded that tribes accept inclusion in the colonial system
40. 1701, Europeans gained control of trade because they had manufactured goods
41. the Indians need for manufactured goods forced them to trade
42. tribal systems were shattered, European domination became more entrenched. 


[1]http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/5604/6

Chapter I, Native Peoples Meet The Spanish, French, and Dutch, 1513 to 1701, p.1 to 14

• Chapter I, Native Peoples Meet The Spanish, French, and Dutch, 1513 to 1701, p.1 to 14
  
  1. The “Native peoples” moved from Siberia to Alaska
  2. They then moved South into the rest of North America some 12,000 to 14,000 years before Europeans “discovered” North America
  3. Indians developed 100s of societies with different languages, social practices, and adaptations to their local environments
  
  Adaptations
  1. Eastern Canada: Iroquian: hunting/fishing/gardening near St. Lawrence Valley towns
  2. (N. Canada)Algonquin: hunt/gather near great river
  3. (W. Canada) Hurons: agricultural 
  4. (South) Coosa, Apalachee, Natchez: based on rich soil, plenty of rainfall, mild climate
  5. Southwest: Zuni, Hopi, pueblo dwellers: well-established permanent settlements
  
  Differences From Europeans
  1. no empires!
  2. no kingdoms!
  3. no tight confederacies! There were loose confederacies... 
  4. reverent approach towards nature
  5. animals, trees, sun, moon, sky: possessed spiritual powers important to everyday life
  6. the shaman, the native’s spiritual leader helped the people to stay in balance with nature
  7. lacked hierarchy
  8. civil chiefs made local decisions after lengthy discussion brought consensus
  9. no elections, villagers who disagreed could leave the community
  10. women were outside of public life: produced food, clothing shelter
  11. children learned necessary skills from a variety of adults in the village
  12. shaming/ridicule was used in instances of misbehavior
  13. frequent sharing of resources
  14. giving away goods was prestigious
  15. utilized wood, bone, stone: didn’t last long
  16. hunted: a great amount of chance, less stable
  
  European’s Worldview/Characteristics
  1. humans are outside of nature
  2. Native peoples became tribes after interacting with Europeans
  3. natural resources exist for humanity’s benefit
  4. Europeans promoted a strict social hierarchy
  5. corporeal punishment was used in instances of misbehavior
  6. boats created moveable communities
  7. carried supplies for months of sustenance
  8. iron, brass, steel, copper implements were utilized: lasted longer
  9. the Spanish herded domesticated animals: more dependable
  10. written agreements allowed Europeans to make & alter agreements with native leaders
  11. Europeans had nationalistic tendencies
  12. Europeans had theological differences
  13. Spain, France, Holland, & England were eager to prove their superiority
  14. knowledge of science, geography, technology added to European feelings that God was at their side
  15. Europeans came for God, glory, adventure, wealth, fame & the opportunity to escape difficult lives in their home country
  16. Europeans had access to horses/dogs which helped them gain military victories
  
  
  Spanish Expedition
  1. 1513 expedition of Juan Ponce de Leon from Puerto Rico to Florida
  2. wanted riches, slave or the Fountain of Youth
  3. 1521, an Indian arrow wounded Leon mortally
  4. native peoples were captured and sold into slavery in the Caribbean
  5. early explorers brought misery & destruction
  6. kidnapping, rape, robbery, warfare was brought by Europeans
  7. Spaniards got to North America First
  
  French Expedition
  1. Jacques Cartier went into the St. Lawrence River in Canada 
  2. French weren’t as brutal as the Spaniards but their dealings with the Northern tribes weren’t very peaceful
  3. Cartier knew little about native peoples
  4. native peoples opened informal trading with European fishing vessels along the coast
  5. traded beads, combs, small knives with natives
  6. Cartier kidnapped two sons of Donnacona, chief of Stadacona
  7. 1535, Cartier led a squadron of three ships to Stadacona
  8. made a winter camp in Stadacona
  9. didn’t ask permission of nearby villagers before setting up his camp
  10. didn’t meet with Chief Donnacona to make a ceremonial alliance with him
  11. villagers viewed his actions as discourteous, threatening to their economic well-being
  12. went to Hochelaga, near present-day Montreal, he was welcomed gladly by the villagers
  13. returned to Donnacona’s village, endured a difficult winter
  14. scurvy broke out among Cartier’s men, the Indians taught them how to made medicinal tea from white cedar bark & conifer needles & cure the disease
  15. Indians traded for metal goods, knives and awls, scratch tool for marking wood
  16. Chief Donnacona’s descriptions of rich kingdoms of the interior convinced French officials to establish a resident colony under La Rocque
  17. captives died in France
  18. relations between natives & French deteriorated immediately
  19. 1543, French abandoned the N. American settlement
  20. sixty years later the French returned by the villages were abandoned
  
  Spanish Forays In The South & West
  1. Spanish expeditions were under the monarch’s supervision
  2. consulted with adelantados, Spanish governors, “he who goes before,”[1]
  3. adelantados wanted wealth, power, & possibly public offices
  4. after Leon’s death in 1521, Spanish renewed interest in N. America
  5. Hernando de Soto brought troops to Tampa Bay
  6. Soto enslaved people, used them as laborers
  7. Soto had superior weapons/body armor but Indians weakened the invaders
  8.1542, Soto died on the lower Mississippi River
  9. 1540, Coronado led forces into the USA
  10. captured Zuni village, used it as headquarters
  11. headed toward Albuquerque
  12. crossed Texas, Oklahoma, stopped in central Kansas
  13. Cabrillo, 1st to get to California
  14. Cabrillo survived an Indian attack on his first night ashore
  15. his pilot tried to get to S. Oregon but supplies ran low so they returned to Mexico
  16. explorers, clerics & wealth-seekers came
  17. Europeans brought misery, disease, destruction
  18. brought back stories, legends, lies & incorrect data about the places they visited
  19. brought malaria & smallpox
  20. In 1565, the Spanish government acted. It authorized Pedro Menendez de Aviles to direct settlement in Florida & sent him with over 1,000 men to accomplish that objective. Once there he built a line of forts stretching from near present-day Miami to what is now South Carolina. He also sent subordinates to establish other forts and settlements in the Southeast. For several years soldiers crossed Florida, meeting Indians, seeking wealth, and learning about the land. 
  21. hungry soldiers seized food and abused women
  22. the Spanish were willing to destroy/enslave their enemies
  23. battles with the Indians/British raids reduced the Spanish hold on Florida to St. Augustine
  
  Missionaries
  1. Jesuit missionaries wanted to bring Christianity & Spanish practices to several Florida groups
  2. children only listened for food
  3. Jesuits mocked the shaman which angered their hosts
  4. 1560s, Indians came to ignore/oppose the Jesuit’s efforts
  5. 3 decades later: Spanish settlers came into New Mexico
  6. took over village, renamed it San Juan
  7. troubles with Indians erupted immediately
  8. the Spanish settlement grew slowly as poverty, isolation & continued danger from the tribes inhibited further immigration
  9. the Spanish hold on the region was weak 
  
  The Rise Of The St. Lawrence Sea Trade
  1. 1580s, French traded with the Algonquins
  2. 1600, annual fur trade was developed
  3. King Henry IV gave grants to successful merchants
  4. 1603, Guast got a king-granted-monopoly but New France didn’t have many settlers so they held little influence/sway over the Native Americans
  5. Champlain chose an outpost on the Atlantic coast
  6. 1605, moved to Port Acadia
  7. Acadia presented difficulties
  8. settlement continued in Acadia but French wanted to move to St. Lawrence
  9. fur trade: economic base for settlements
  10. bartered corn, tobacco, for fish, meat, hides, furs
  11. copper, wampum beads-luxuries
  12. beaver hunters became economically dependent on Europeans for food because pelting was time consuming
  13. tribes considered furs modest 
  14. beaver was traded for kettles, axes, swords, knives, food, drink
  15. Indians chosen as trade captains were given extra goods
  16. older-localism eroded with trade
  17. a cleric was hung by a tree for trespassing
  18. Indians became sharp, waited for later ships to trade to get better prices for their goods
  19. 1610, Canadian Indians forced the French to adopt their customs & negotiate in their language
  20. the French didn’t need land for their settlements unlike the Spanish settlers
  21. French realized good relations with Indians N. of the St. Lawrence river was integral to good trade
  
  

Introduction To Indians In The US & Canada, & Class Notes For 09/30/2009

Introduction (xii to xvii, Indians In The United States & Canada):
a. 5 million to 10 million in N. America before white settlers
b. Indian populations fell dramatically when white settlers arrived
c. trade between whites & native populations was overcome by greed
d. cooperation between whites & native populations was overcome by brutality
e. goodwill between whites & native populations was overcome by violence
f. invaders often took physical control
g. North America, Australia & New Zealand were overcome by invasions
h. disease killed millions of natives
i. whites had superior technology: metal tools, firearms, wheeled vehicles, domesticated animals. Whites could dominate native peoples easily with their advanced technology.
j. white society/European political structures valued hierarchy as a means of social organization

The succession of tribal life
1. tribal independence: tribes governed their own affairs
2. Indian/white equality: white settlers & native peoples had similar rights
3. dependent tribes: native tribes depended on whites economically
4. marginality: native tribes were marginalized and stood on the fringe of society & tribes were not economically powerful

Books:
1. Custer Died For Your Sons, critique of destructive white impacts on tribes
2. The Unjust Society, about white settler’s use of government & government actions by whites which were intended to destroy native communities
3. Indians lost their homelands
4. Spain, France, Great Britain, Canada & USA all embraced different governmental policies which affected Native Americans

European’s Beliefs:
1. Christianity
2. private property
3. top-down political structures
4. advanced technology
5. advanced ethnocentrism: characterized by or based on the attitude that one's own group is superior

Class Notes, 09/30/2009

Wilson
1.German sources are academically acceptable

Fixico
1. code of ethics with which to approach Native American/tribal history
2. tribal histories: histories of native peoples
3. America-centric: use American values/an American lens to consider history
4. metaphysical
5. naming
6. environment
7. environment
8. experts/specialists
9. histeriography
10. Non-consenting communication
11. Middle Ground
12. Consent requires inner tribal political engagement

Activist
1. field work
2. oral sources
3. repetition
4. sacred knowledge
5. * protocols
6. respect
7. allies
8. agency

One Tribal Story:
1. a chief that lives below the world wants to marry this one particular girl within a village, one of the villager’s daughters
2. the village chiefs consult to determine whether the daughter should marry the “underworld chief” 
3. the village chiefs realize that the daughter does not want to marry the “underground chief”
4. The village chiefs decide that it would be against the daughter’s will to force marriage upon the daughter against the daughter’s will
5. the “underworld chief” angrily attacks the villagers with fire & the villagers must wade in a nearby lake in order to survive the onslaught of fire
6. Significance: geologically important events were transmitted inter-generationally through oral stories. There probably was a geologically significant event that was of note that elders wished to pass on to younger generations. Such stories also served as entertainment.
7. What is history? What is historical evidence?

Oral Stories Vs. The Oral Tradition (see handout)
1. scholars consolidate oral stories to eliminate redundancy which isn’t favorable within the written/literate tradition

Oral Tradition
1. stories that are told through generations and by many different people
2. Moralistic, cautionary
3. repetitive
4. roots in pre-literate cultures
5. metaphysical
6. lineage/heritage
7. relationship between story teller & audience
8. Of time long ago

Oral History
1. a recounting of personal, individual experience
2. democratic, social history
3. non-elite
4. roots in post-WWII recording technology & social history
5. experience based, rooted in material reality
6. relationship between interviewer & interviewee
7. of a time within the interviewers life

Quotes (Handout)
1. “These definitions are applicable to Native American oral history & oral tradition only in a very limited way.... From a Native perspective, I would suggest instead that oral history is contained within oral tradition. For the Dakota, ‘oral tradition’ refers to the way in which information is passed on rather than the length of time something has been told.” (-Angela Cavendar Wilson, “Grandmother to Granddaughter: Generations of Oral History in a Dakota Family,” American Indian Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 1 (Winter, 1996)