Online Materials, Federal Policy, Week 2, Lecture 2

Similarities between America & Canada in the 19th Century

Assimilation

1. agriculture
2. Christianity
3. education

• land hunger among non-natives
• paternalism
• underfunded Indian service
• reservation/reserve policy
• assumption of assimilation
• railroad/infrastructure development on Native lands
• gold rushes

Differences between US & Canada

• Canada-oriented to Britain/US independent
• states had less power in US, individual territories more powerful in Canad
• smaller settler population in Canada,
  
• Canada: more willing to recognize tribal groups
• more violent conflicts in US Civil war with natives than Canadian confederates had with 1st nations

Pacific Northwest:

• maritime fur trade-1792-1812
• Indians were shrewd traders
• Indians greatly controlled the trade relationship
• fairly peaceful co-existence
• cultural change-not very disruptive
• Columbia river, essential to trade
• forts: new habitats for Indian traders
• Indians & whites both wanted monopolies
• treaty period between 1850 and 1871
• Columbia River Treaties
• Douglas treaties
• 
  

Week 2 Online Materials

• colonization > designation of tribes, ignores fluidity
• colonial efforts of Spanish, British, Americans, Canadians
  
• destroyed world Indians created by 1500

major themes:

• 1. disease
• 2. trade
• 3. Christianity & conversion
• 4. land
• 5. conflict among European nations
• 6. conflict among Indian people
• 7. resistance to incursion
• 8. exploration
• 9. collection of information
• 10. comparative conquests

Don Juan de Onate letter:

• Spanish: conquered American west 200 years before British
• conquest: taxation, servitude, slavery, land grants, resistance, military force, mixed populations
  
• religious & economic conquest
• war justified if natives weren't Christianized
• northern colonists empowered
• natives were forced to work in mines
• slavery, fundamental to the economy
• threat of terror for those that didn't submit
• wanted mines & conversions
• Acoma uprising: organized attack on Spanish settlers
• Pueblos vs. the Spanish
• English, less concerned with capturing Indian labor than Spanish

English approach

• 1. separation, not integration
• 2. steal land, not labor
• 3. land cession
• 4. trade relations
• 5. assimilation
• 6. enlarged fur trading routes
• 7. integrated Native economies into a world economy
• 8. based on commercial relationships
• 9. used Indian labor not slave labor
• worst exposures: international marketplace, intertribal competition, liquor and guns

Settlements

• British had to claim land they occupied
• 1. treaty negotiations
  
• 2. policed settlers @ frontier
• 3. Proclamation: temporary boundary line, monopoly on future lands for crown, native right to lands they occupied
• 4. Continental Congress: can't make settlement on lands claimed by Indians without authority of Congress
• 5. no thought of pluralistic society-cohabitation of Indians & whites

Documents:

• 1. Royal Proclamation of 1763
• 2. Onate Acoma
• 3. Juan de Oñate statue by Reynaldo Rivera

Handout: Black Elk’s Significance in American Culture

Black Elk’s Significance in American Culture 

a. religious & historical significance of Nicholas Black Elk
b. “creative & courageous confrontation with Christianity and with the challenges of modernity
c. “the greatest religious thinker yet produced by native North America”
d. created an “authentic Lakota Christianity” 
e. revitalized the traditional Lakota religion 
f. identified points of commonality between Christianity and Lakota religion
g. showed how Christianity could be embraced without sacrificing Lakota identity
h. worked to reinvigorate the Sun Dance, and to reinstate it as the centerpiece of Lakota religion 
i. Black Elk was significant as a religious leader
j. helps stimulate interest in native religions 
k. concern for “greening” and environmental issues
l. offers spiritual insight and attentiveness to the natural world
m. the natural world is a vehicle for religious experience
n. Indians are regarded as noble savages who enjoy an original relationship with the spiritual powers of nature, free from the corruptions of civilization 
o. exemplifies environmental stewardship & ecospirituality 
p. helped natives become spiritual authorities and not outsiders in American culture
q. natives as romantic images-problematic
r. Native Americans have become religious experts and teachers

Editors Contribution
1. Black Elk was treated as a tragic figure 
2. BE’s way of life was treated as a description of a noble way of life that had vanished forever
3. Black Elk held true to the Lakota religion, not appreciated by the author 
4. BE’s contribution to the world-not taken seriously by the editor
5. BE’s vision treated literally, although could had been a worldview that developed over the course of his lifetime
6. BE’s conveyance to Neihardt: significant part of its development & realization 
7. Neihardt didn’t consider that the stories BE told about the vision & life of his people could be a manifestation of an ongoing vitality of Lakota culture
8. lens: believed N.A. societies were internally coherent cultural systems in which religion played a central role 
9. cultural relativism of the 1930s was an improvement over defending that Anglo Saxons were of the highest moral & intellectual authority
10. native culture wasn’t considered historically 
11. complex relationships were involved in their cultural change & ongoing vitality
12. many parts of the story are authentic 
13. Longfellow’s Hiawatha didn’t have much basis in Native American reality 
14. Niehardt wanted to learn about the Lakota people & the Ghost Dance ceremonies


Since the 1960s
1. Alice Beck Kehoe, wrote The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory & Revitalization
a. discussed the role of the Ghost Dance in the 1890 massacre of Big Foot’s band of Lakota people beside Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota
b. the Wounded Knee Massacre site was later occupied by members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1973, a new warrior society in a struggle for Indian rights
c. AIM activists read Black Elk Speaks to learn about the religious traditions of their ancestors
d. young people that were disaffected by the US government’s policies in Vietnam, racism, & complacency of middle class Americans were exposed to Black Elks 
e. Black Elk, first major Native-influenced text to be studied in mainstream Religion courses
f. interest in alternative religions & alternative forms of spirituality 
g. more publications focusing on mistreatment of Indians by the US government were created
h. it is critically sophisticated to gain insights from Black Elk speaks because of the author’s influence 

Main points
1. story about the mistreatment of the Lakota people by the US government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries 
2. & about the efforts of Black Elk and others to preserve their religion and culture against hostile forces 
3. indictment of stupidity and cruelty of Americans who made native lives miserable 
4. tribute to a small ethnic group that defended their religion & culture against great odds
5. about planting and development of native ideas within the religious imaginations of millions of Americans 
6. Black Elk wanted to revitalize Lakota religion and promote its relevance for modern life 

Black Elk In The Context of Long-standing Trends in American Cultural History
1. Black Elk is popular
2. signals some important shifts in American thought
3. Natives have been admired for centuries 
4. when natives became less of a military threat, they became more admired
5. when technology & industry distanced people from the land, people admired Indians more 
6. low levels of hostility against native groups
7. high levels of concern about the natural environment & its degradation 
8. positive images as simple and wholesome 
9. After French & Indian Wars, historians, playwrights, novelists, poets, visual artists portrayed natives as noble savages
10. In America: the Indian warrior was a symbol of fierce pride, a spirit of independence, a down-to-earth intelligence and a natural skillfulness 
11. Transcendentalist movement: celebrated natives for their practical knowledge about the natural world & for their immediate and childlike acquaintance with nature’s spiritual powers 
12. Transcendentalists shaped romantic stereotypes about Native Americans
13. their intellectual and emotional climate celebrated nature as a primary source of religious experience 
14. grew out of the transcendental idealism advanced by Immanuel Kant 
a. Goethe, Wordsworth, Carlyle, de Staal, Cousin-equated intuition with religious impilse
b. believed religious institutions had a stultifying effect on religious inspiration 
c. thought the sublime parts of nature were the best means of inspiration 
d. reflected Plato’s ideas that material reality reflects ideal truths
e. Augustine-nature was evil because of the fall
f. Puritans shaped Native Americans as savage beasts
g. transcendentalism- Thoreau & Ralph Waldo Emerson

Emerson
1. nature was a living bible of spiritual revelations & signs
2. you become a “particle of God” 
3. absence of egoism 
4. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Francis Parkman, James Fenimore Cooper, Emily Dickinson, Walt Whitman, Annie Dillard, Wendall Berry, Peter Matthiessen, Gary Snyder, N. Scott Momaday
5. God in nature, already common in the American literary tradition 
6. the Lakota people’s resisting of American culture-countercultural
7. counterculturalism is an important element of American culture itself
8. counter-culture: experiencing God in nature
9. anti-institutional
10. Indians: countercultural protest, natural wisdom, spiritual insight
11. Thoreau tried to live like an Indian 
12. Thoreau hired Indians to be his guides to nature
13. John Brown & Walt Whitman influenced Thoreau 
14. Native religious beliefs were diverse 
15. Neihardt presented Indian culture & Western civilization as irreconcilable 

Black Elk Speaks and the Re-creation of American Culture
1. Black Elk: viewed as a religious leader
2. Native American religion is part of North American religion 
3. Native Americans participated in motion pictures & activities for financial gain
4. the majority of Native Americans have been deeply influenced by Christianity 
5. Sacred Pipe: symbolizes Lakota spiritual life 
6. belief in a true God is central to Native spirituality & Christianity
7. 7 rituals mirrored the 7 sacraments of Roman Catholicism
8. water symbolized vitality for the Lakota people
9. doesn’t believe the nature world is corrupt or that spiritual purification must renounce nature or the flesh
10. need forgiveness for inattention or lack of care for the natural world
11. stresses personal religious experience & intuition
12. Black Elk’s: less countercultural. less hostile to Christianity, more prosocial, more community oriented than transcendentalism
13. overcomes transcendentalism’s savagism
14. represents the religious achievements & religious authority of Native Americans and the emergence of their religious thought as a highly respected element of American culture 

The Appointment of Don Juan de Onate as Governor/Captain General of New Mexico

The Appointment of Don Juan de Onate as Governor/Captain General of New Mexico
1. occurred October 21st, 1595
2. personal qualities/merits/service in the war against the Chichimecan Indians 
3. appointed governor, captain general, caudillon (political/military leader), discoverer, & pacifier of the provinces of New Mexico
4. bring settlers, armed forces, baggage, equipment, munitions into New Mexico
5. told to treat the natives with peace, friendship, and good treatment & introduce them to the Gospel (with GUNs)
6. try to get the Indians to honor the friars and listen to their teachings
7. peaceful gestures will make the Indians more likely to become Christians

The Royal Proclamation, Oct. 7, 1763

The Royal Proclamation, Oct. 7, 1763

1. acquired land in America
2. treaty of the peace was concluded @ Paris
3. want to promote commerce, manufacturing, and navigation 
4. Four New Governments set up: Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, Grenada
a. governors of those territories can’t grant warrants/patents
b. Indians can use lands outside of territory
c. Hudson’s Bay Company held substantial pieces of land
d. subjects must ask for permission to undertake new purchases/settlements
e. inappropriate occupation of Indian lands isn’t allowed 
f. free & open trade with Indians
g. lays out conditions for licenses
h. military will apprehend traitors, murderers, felons

Surviving Marginalization, 1890s-1920, Ch. 9, through page 263

Surviving Marginalization, 1890s-1920 
1. natives were seen as insignificant in Canada & in USA 
a. boarding schools disrupted family relations
b. damaged culture & language
c. trained Indian students for non-existent jobs
d. mixed young people from various tribes together
e. W. Canada: natives joined trade unions to participate in economic life
f. Society of American Indians: pantribal organization
g. natives from reservations experienced bitter prejudice
h. Navajos learned white legal practices while conservative Hopis retained traditional cultural practices
i. politicians became increasingly anti-Indian by 1900
j. only a white teacher could “teach the Indian out of the students”
k. natives were unwilling to make long range plans
l. Pueblos conservatism limited their ability to acculturate
m. force could be used to send natives to boarding schools
n. Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians, non-denominational schools were set up
o. all aspects of Indian’s lives were controlled
p. natives wanted secular, non-church based education but governments wanted churches to take care of those things
q. most Indians were taught at day schools
r. boarding schools were more efficient
s. 1870s: Hampton Institute in Virginia & the Carlisle Indian school in Pennsylvania offered off-reservation secondary schooling
t. residential schools could break down tribal identity, customs & language
u. Stanley Hill, wanted Indian children taught in their native languages
v. Leupp, classes should be held outside 
w. Leupp tried to get kids into day schools & close boarding schools
y. the principal of the Hampton Institute believed natives were intellectually inferior to whites
z. Reel, superintendent on Indian education, taught practical skills like bed-making & simple plowing

1. 1905, Leupp establishes an Indian Employment Office
2. natives did unskilled, manual labor jobs
3. 1909, Robert Valentine & Cato Sells: successors to Leupp
4. 1916: Sells established primary, prevocational & vocational schools
5. 1891, Commissioner Thomas Jefferson Morgan integrated native schools 
6. Morgan demanded equal treatment for Indian children, 4 of 45 districts remained

Institutionalized Paternalism, p. 250
1. bureaucrats chipped away at Indian self sufficiency & feelings of competence
2. Trutch: natives lacked legal rights to the land
3. Indian’s title to the land was denied
4. BC officials tricked Ottawa into accepting limited future land grants for tribal reserves
5. 1887, Indians became very angry about unjust BC policies
6. Nishga & Tsimshian chiefs visited government leaders in Victoria
a. asked for more land & access to documents published a decade earlier that would support their case
b. Victoria refused to accept any tribal land claims
c. 1900: Canadian bureaucrats sought to reduce the Indian land base whenever possible in order to open S. Saskatchewan & Alberta
d.1902, Indians objected to selling any of their land
e. Dawes Act, allowed federal bureaucrats to separate Indians from much of their land base
f. 1890-1910: the tribal land base shrunk considerably
g. Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, government COULD move ahead rapidly
h. 1880s-WWI, collapse in tribal populations in Plains & Blood tribes
i. 1912, steady increase in Indians in Canada
j. the Census Bureau did not cooperate fully: many people counted twice or not at all
k. 1900: 237,000 natives

254 Indian Participation In World War I
1. 1914, Canadian Indians had to hunt more for food, fur trading went down
a. noncitizen Indians were exempted from military service
b. Sam Hughes, minister of militia & defense permitted Indians to enlist
c. 35% of eligible Indians enlisted
d. 1915, battalion from the Six Nations Reserve in Ontario
e. 1916, Six Nations battalion was kept intact
f. enlistment officials didn’t keep ethnic or racial data
g. some Indians enlisted out of loyalty to the king
h. Indians joined the reserves to escape poverty & boredom
i. Indians that joined the army gained the right to vote without the unpopular terms of enfranchisement
j. 1917, Parliament passed the Military Service Act, mandating the registration of all young men for the draft

2. Indians in US were in worse shape
a. the US stayed out of the war until 1917
b. Congressmen Carl Hayden(AZ) promoted all-Indian militia units
c. American Indian magazine denounced segregation
d. Oklahoma Indians, preferred segregated units
e. Indian participation in the war effort was high
f. The Selective Service Act of May 18th, 1917 applied to all citizens, applied to a majority of Indians
g. war Commissioner Cato Sells bragged that at least 6,000 of the 18,000 men in the service had enlisted
h. Gosiutes, Shoshones, Utes, Navajos, Mission Indians opposed the draft
i. most of the eligible Gosiutes ended up registering
j. Indian resistance to registering was partly confusion 
k. tribal elders blessed would-be soldiers
l. Sells believed the military would civilize the Indians

Increasing Agricultural Efforts, Decreasing Land
1. natives served in the armed forces
2. bureaucrats looked to the tribes for increased food production
3. 1914, Duncan Scott persuaded the Indians to increase their food & livestock production
4. 1918, Scott wanted boarding school students as laborers on nearby farms
5. 1917, the Greater Production effort to increase crop size even more was launched
6. tribes who refused to sell their surplus land would have to lease it to white farmers or ranchers
7. government could spend bank funds to increase crop/livestock production
8. William Graham, longtime bureaucrat, supervised agricultural production efforts on the reserves in the prairie provinces
9. bureaucrats were in control of reserve lands with little checks on their actions
10. 1918, the Blood Tribe didn’t want to sell 90,000 acres of land
11. fraud, intimidation & bribery to achieve the bureaucrat’s goals
12. tribal people lost 1/3 of their production in 2 years
13. economic potential of the land was damaged
14. 1917 Soldier Settlement Act, resulted in further land losses
15. 160 acres of dominion owned land
16. veterans could acquire land in the “Railway Belt”
17. 1919, New Soldier Settlement Act, 160 acres of land to former servicemen, a 1906 amendment kept Indians from being able to use it
18. 1/10 Indian applicants got loans for land purchases
19. 1920s, worldwide drop in agricultural prices
20. a) soil conservation, b) proper choice of crops, c) ways to raise more food per acre
21. bureaucratic agents said there was more unused land than their actually was
22. Sells, reported large scale increases in Indian acreage
23. “By 1920 tribal people in both the United States and Canada had endured continued cultural, economic, and demographic battering by the societies in both countries. Government policies reduced the land base of many groups, as fraud and bribery often accomplished what formal actions did not. World War I led some Indians to leave their reservations for military service, but when the conflict ended they returned home to face increased poverty. Veteran’s benefits helped many young men, but rarely did tribal members get much assistance. The continuing efforts of educators, missionaries, and bureaucrats hurt tribes more than helping them. As a result, the postwar decades would bring even more difficulties and problems for reserve dwellers.”(263) 

Chapter 8, Societies Under Siege, 1860s-1890s, Ch. VIII, p. 206 to 242

Chapter 8, Societies Under Siege, 1860s-1890s

206 to 242

1. Toohool. argued with the one-armed general
2. solidiers demand Nez Perce vacate the Wallowa Valley in Oregon
3. 30 days to move property & livestock or army would move them to a reservation
4. 1877, Nez Perce flight to Canada 
5. farmers, miners, merchant, hunters, bureaucrats hurt Indians
6. bitter interracial conflict
7. government officials told them what to do
8. Mountees kept the peace
9. Canada: Metis (French/Indian) & English-Scots-Indian 
10. Canada recognized some of the plains groups
11. some tribal people resorted to warfare to protect their lands & customs
12. few violent confrontations-Canada
13. Kickapoos fled from S. Texas into N. Mexico
14. natives see whites as land thieves & speculators
15. Gradual Civilization Act, cultural suicide
16. prize sights given to commercial fisherman
17. Indian traditionalists became Catholics but kept native economic practices
18. Canadian Indians understood their legal rights
19. mines offered the Indians nothing 
20. white’s actions brought Indian retaliation
21. 1863, Chilcotin Indians attacked ferry operator, wrecked the ferry, took powder & lead 
22. Victoria residents demanded military action
23. white aggression WAS pronounced in Canada as well
24. British granted more autonomy to their colonies
25. 1867, William Seward, American secretary of state purchased Alaska from Russia
26. North West “Mountees”: military, police, & civil governmental functions
27. Canada: protect tribal groups, try to assimilate them
28. Enfranchisement Act of 1869, increase governmental interference
29. less than 1/4 heritage, excluded from tribal membership
30. Canada tried to push tribal people into the cultural mainstream
31. federal officers controlled tribal affairs
32. treaties didn’t prevent violence-1860s
33. Civil war encouraged tribal migration
34. North & South wanted Indian troops
35. “Great Sioux War” result of drinking, killed farm family in central Minnesota
36. 1864, raiding bands of Sioux, Pawnees, Cheyennes, Arapahos cleared many pioneers from the central plains
37. Colorado militia- Sand Creek Massacre
38. 1865, The Doolittle Commission
39. Indians experienced hardship because of loss of Buffalo
40. “learn white man’s way if they want their children to survive.”
41. natives didn’t want to be put on reservations
42. Treaty of Medicine Lodge: peace, surrender hunting territories, live on assigned reservations, accept white man’s instruction in farming
43. 1868, Treaty of Fort Laramie
44. Cheyenne raids in Kansas
45. Quaker policy in Indian Office under Uysses Grant
46. 1870s, some Indian agents appointed to Indian Office
47. Grant appointed Parker, a Seneca
48. 1871, instead of treaties, executive orders
49. Indians & settlers didn’t understand Vincent The Good’s efforts
50. 1871, Congress deadlocked with Indian affairs
51. Modoc War, 1872, Red River War, 1874 & Nez Perce in 1877, Ute War of 1879
52. George Custer into Black Hills, Sioux wanted to remove the miners, 
53. Custer led soldiers. miners & reporters to the Black Hills, 
54. 1876, Custer led a large part of the 7th Cavalry Regiment to its destruction on the banks of the Little Bighorn/ Greasy Grass River (Indian name)
55. Custer met full force of Indian tribes but thought only 150 natives would be there
56. Gall, Hump, Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull destroyed most of Custer’s immediate command
57. natives had strong connections to their homelands
58. few accepted the natives right to continue living a traditional lifestyle
59. little thought to where natives should live
60. those who supported acculturation programs failed to accept them as equals

Confrontation On The Canadian Plains
1. US + tribal people fought bloody wars in the decades after 1860
2. Canada usually avoided major confrontation & bloodshed
3. Red River War (1869-70) & Riel-led-Metis(1885-86)
4. governments threatened their land base & economic survival
5. much social prejudice against native customs, language, sense of independence
6. 1869, Rupert’s land became part of Canada
7. 1869, Enfranchisement Act: incorporated existing rules about tribal membership & protection for native lands
8. Metis lived in Manitoba, S. of Lake Winnipeg
a. maintained homes & small farms along the Red & Assiniboine Rivers
b. Canada assumed control of the area
c. William Dougall, newly appointed governor of Rupert’s land arrived
d. Ottawa didn’t provide local participation in governing the region
e. natives organize under Louis Riel Jr. to proclaim their own local government, establish courts & block Canadian penetration
f. Manitoba Act reserved 1.4M acres of land for the next generation of Metis
g. Metis had a claim to aboriginal title to their land, classed as a distinct people
h. 1870: 1) status Indians, 2) non status Indians, 3) Metis, 4) Inuit (Eskimos)
i. 1820s, US regulators gave individual alotments of land to natives
j. both nations used treaties and other agreements to establish tribal land claims
k. Prarie du Chien, called for establishing half breed reservations in Minnesota & in E. Nebraska
l. 1871, Canada: treaties on hunting rights, annuities, schools, tools, farm equipment, a medicine chest
m. 1880s: Canadian government & natives stopped getting along
n. North W. Mounted Police: based on Royal Irish Constabulary, introduced in 1873, 
-hoped to keep peace
-regulate the introduction of alcohol
-discourage American freebooters from crossing the Montana border
o. Mountees had civil/military authority: local justice of the peace to military actions
p. 1880s, buffalo herds were gone to a point where natives had to change their economy
q. Cree/Blackfoot: leader Big Bear was suspicious of whites, wanted none of the Queen’s presents, 
r. Crowfoot, natives could not depend on buffalo hunting for long
s. Plains people sold horses, ate gophers, antelope, mice
t. Ottawa officials broke provisions of the 1876 treaty, wouldn’t give natives the lands they desired & denied the bands food needed for survival
u. 1884: natives protest the inadequacy of government actions
v. 1885: violence erupted in the plains, leader MacDonald wasn’t concerned about Western issues
w. 1869: government mishandled Metis land claims
y. the government hanged Riel, head negotiator
z. Poundmaker & Big Maker had tried to discourage the fighting but were jailed anyway

Educating For Enfranchisement
a. government agents, missionaries, schoolteachers, bureaucrats demanded natives become sedentary farmers
b. bureaucrats decided to put natives in isolation to speed their absorption into American/Canadian society 
c. natives didn’t have a model to emulate
d. 1876, 1st Indian Act in the Parliament, tried to achieve goals of the Enfranchisement Act of 1869
e. Indian department wanted to bread up reserves, assign land to individuals, begin & operate schools & force enfrancisement on unwilling people
f. 1884, Elk v. Wilkins, US Supreme Court ruled that natives were not able to get citizenship
g. the Canadian government DID give natives full rights of citizenship
h. Canadians wanted natives to become lawyers, medical doctors, ministers & priests
i. missionaries/tribal funds paid operational costs for native schools
j. 1875, the Dominican government provided a grant of $2,000 for Indian education
k. Ontario schools, poor native attendance 
l. sporadic attendance frustrated teacher
m. bonuses for students with good attendance?
n. Indian’s actions determined school success 
o. 1880s, some tribes refused to pay for schools
p. natives: suspicious of whites & their institutions
q. Plains tribes didn’t want religion taught to their children
r. Indians resisted acculturation openly & covertly
s. natives viewed boarding schools as a disruption of family/village life
t. natives didn’t believe in corporeal punishment
u. ceremonies: tribal elders, chiefs, shamans, adults instructed children in traditional native customs
v. 1884: government required attendance for all Indian children between 7 & 15
w. Western tribes preferred to hunt, trap, fish & gather
y. Indian Act of 1890, Indians could only hunt for part of the year
z. enforcement remained sporadic

Page 229
1. natives didn’t want to accept the beliefs/customs of the whites
2. students received trading in printing, tinsmithing, carpentry, bootmaking, tailoring, farming
3. some smart students might become teachers or doctors, small #
4. native students had to speak English, cut their hair, wear European style clothing, & changed their recreation
5. most of the students returned to the reserves

Education of the Cherokee Nation
1. the Cherokee National Council began operating schools
2. Male & Female Seminaries for highly structured education
3. natives operated 64 schools, graduates became teachers
4. schools gave no manual training classes
5. religious groups played a small role
6. the Office of Indian affairs believed that natives must learn English
7. officials kept the tribes separated
8. Richard Pratt founded the Carlisle Indian School, Indian prisoners were brought to a black school in Virginia
a. young people had to be integrated immediately
b. the schools often failed to counter the student’s strong cultural strength
c. many students returned to home determined to remain Indians 
d. students became farmers, stock-raisers, skilled laborers, merchants, professionals. Few worked in unskilled positions
e. government service provided many jobs for boarding school graduates
f. job holders were tied into the cash economy
g. the Field Matron Service came to employ Indian women as reservation workers
h. tried to teach Indian women how to run a middle-class household

Missionaries & Reformers (p. 232) 
a. missionaries tried to spread Christianity + increase acculturation
b. William Duncan, Anglican Church Missionary Society to British Columbia, got fifty converts to found a new community
c. courthouse, gail, school, town hall, public reading room & museum were erected
d. Duncan’s ego grew > missionary society split with him
e. natives didn’t like industrial labor: sawmill, cannery, soap factory, small businesses
f. a nativist movement split Duncan’s followers, went to Alaska, founded a community of the same name
g. the Oblates of the RC Church & the Methodists staffed schools throughout the Canadian West
h. 1880s, coercion to achieve particular goals
i. Indian Act of 1884, attacked tribal beliefs/practices
j. 1892: officials thought a Sun Dance event would not be held again, which was held again. 
k. white officials tried to keep natives on reserves but the Mounted Police ignored the statutes
l. acculturation might take generations
m. Women’s National Indian Association & the Indian Right’s Association worked with Board of Indian Commissioners as watchdog groups to oversee the federal treatment of Indians
n. no critical dissent in Canada regarding Indian affairs
o. 1870s: Nebraska Poncas protested
p. Helen Hunt Jackson helped publicize the government’s difficulties with the tribal people, published “A Century Of Dishonor.” raised public awareness when she sent it to every member of Congress
q. tried to end tribalism
r. if Indians were given land, they might adopt the white practice of individual ownership...?
s. if white farmers lived next door, Indians would learn to farm...?
t. 1860s: unsuccessful enfranchisement program in Canada
u. Dawes Severalty Act, gave the president authority to allot reservations
v. 25 years of occupation > Indians received titles to the land
w. surplus land could be placed on the market
y. 1870s, Indian police kept the peace
z. 1883, plural marriages & long hair on men were suppressed > break up tribal/band solidarity + to encourage acculturation

American Efforts At Acculturation
1. white man’s approach to law enforcement & acceptable habits of dress, language, & family matters
2. Canadian post-Confederacy policy tried to bring about rapid acculturation & assimilation of tribal people
3. Canadian officials assumed individualism, personal property, religion, & education would accomplish that goal quickly
4. 1874, Minister of the Interior David Laird wrote that the government should 1) enfranchise Indians, 2) give them an allotment of land from tribal reserves, 3) divide tribal funds among members > 1) promote individual skills natives needed, 2) reduce tribal holdings & reduce native attachment to tribes
a. the 1876 Indian Act took a different approach
b. Indians needed to be able to write English or French to gain enfranchisement + be free of debt & have “good moral character.”
c. applied only to the eastern tribes
d. Canadians believed natives could only do small-scale agriculture
e. 1870s/1880s: Laird wanted family plots near white settlements
f. Indians WANTED to share their land with their tribe
g. 1879: buffalo hunting over > cattle-raising over farming?
h. natives rarely received much help with seed, equipment, & livestock
i. natives needed a permit to sell their crops
j. the Blackfoots began raising cattle in Alberta
k. US 1862 Homestead Act, 160 acre plots, 
l. Indian Homestead Law: opened land to reservation dwellers
m. stock-raising was more practical than farming for western tribes
n. 1875, Gen. Mackenzie purchased cattle & sheep from the Comanche & Kiowa people when people lost battle
o. Indians didn’t have horses to herd cattle, lost or killed many of their animals
p. 3 or 4 year terms for Head Of Indian Affairs
q. 10 year terms made administrative heads complacent

Revitalization & Religious Movements
a. natives turned inward to their cultural/religious practices
b. vision quests, wearing blankets & long hair, continued
c. Dreamer religion, long periods of meditation, founded by Smohalla in the 1850s
d. the Dreamer religion condemned white farming
e. 1881, Squsachtun founded the Indian Shaker religion
-experienced visiting “heaven”
-tried to teach natives how to overcome the difficulties of reservation life
-nervous twitchings, casting off evil thoughts & acts
-federal agents tried to arrest him but they were not successful
f. the Ghost Dance religion, orig. from the visions of Tavibo, a Nevada Paiute, much more widespread
-invading whites would be destroyed in a massive earthquake
-his son Jack Wilson continued preaching the Ghost Dance Religion
-return to Indian practices: 1) frequent bathing, 2) living plainly, 3) avoiding alcohol, 4) prohibiting mourning (all dead Indians would return)
-the worshippers prayed, meditated & danced for up for 5 days > mild group hypnosis
g. the Sioux developed a militant anti-white platform
h. the Ghost Dance developed a secret society with holy clothes to keep warriors safe from the soldier’s bullets
i. 1890s, Sitting Bull was killed
j. soon thereafter Big Foot’s followers were massacred at Wounded Knee
k. high level of Indian unhappiness, low rate of success for acculturation
l. Western approach: education, religion, agriculture, segregated reservations, individual landholdings
m. US army manned settlement/outposts in the West
n. government policies sought to destroy the native’s identity
o. tension between bureaucrats to impose cultural values & natives to retain their values still continues today