Cultural Persistence, Physical Retreat, 1820s-1860s
1. Peter Jones, mixed race Mississauga, became a Methodist Christian
2. acculturation/ adopting white man’s culture was frightening for natives
3. natives lost unity, cultural strength, leadership
4. had to accept Anglo-American education, religion, technology and control of their lives
5. natives were faced with an ever-narrowing set of choices for their lives
6. larger populations of whites & natives + agricultural based subsistence in USA made land struggles bitter
7. In Canada, natives weren’t removed from their land as much as in USA
8. Canada: Metis/country-born people were recognized as a legal group
9. Canada: 1812: 500,000 whites, 1867: 2,500,000 whites
10. USA: 1815: 7,500,000, 1865: 30,000,000
11. tribal people E. of Mississippi: 200,000 to 2,000 people in isolated parts of Florida, North Carolina, Mississippi, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin
12.natives served as military allies in Canada & were an important part of the fur trade
13. Henry Darling: tribes had to be protected from plunder & persecution
14. Indians needed full government support to avoid becoming paupers & criminals who might disrupt colonial society
15. acculturation program: migratory peoples would get village sites, natives would get help building homes & would get the tools & seeds for farming
16. Indian land was sold to pay for the project
17. Canada was not yet an independent nation
18. the Aborigines Protection Society, Protestant missionaries had influence on the dealings with the Indians
19. Canadian/British authorities wanted to cut local costs & avoid violence
20. white paternalism, determination to impose cultural dominance
21. potential war with USA: ended in 1815, all educational activities among the Indians had failed
22. Indians refused to let their children attend the small schools regularly because they moved about in seasonal cycles of planting, hunting, fishing, harvesting
23. Micmac: wanted schools to teach tribal culture/language
24. English tried to profit economically & sexually from the Indian children
The Beginning Of Westward Removal
1. where would tribes live when learning a new culture?
2. 1824: missionaries got $, 21 schools set up
3. Monroe: federal authorities had no obligation to force Indians west against their will
4. Christian lessons of personal worth, redemption & hope found eager listeners
5. George Guess developed a writing system for Cherokees-revitalized/divided society
6. 1825: President Monroe proposed voluntary removal
7. natives were pushed out of their traditional homelands in the east
8. frontiersmen wanted natives to surrender their lands and move west
9. frontiersmen accused/blamed all kinds of crimes: stolen their livestock, hunted on their property
10. state authorities from Georgia to Illinois wanted the federal government to remove the tribes
11. 1831: Cherokee v. Georgia, Worcester v. Georgia: Cherokee & supporters appealed to the US Supreme Court-in vain...
12. John Marshall: natives lacked an independent political status, second appeal: the court ruled against Georgia
13. 1833: some tribal leaders realized they couldn’t stay in Georgia, Chief John Ross wouldn’t accept an agreement,
14. 1835: Senate decided to remove Indians
15. natives created a death penalty for those who sold tribal lands to whites
16. Trail of Tears, natives forced to move west of Mississippi
17. Chickasaws: last major southern tribe to accept removal
18. Levi Colbert rejected federal demands
19. 1827: Thomas McKenney, commissioner of Indian affairs visited the Chickasaws for informal talks
20. natives needed a place with resources like Alabama/Missippi
21. visited Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma but natives couldn’t agree
22. 1830: Congress passed an Indian Removal Act
23. states imposed heavy fines/imprisonment on native leaders that dared exercise their authority & abolished all tribal laws
24. Andrew Jackson would not help the natives
25. 1837: natives were removed
26. Vermillion Kickapoos avoided forced migration for awhile
27. Kickapoos’ leader Kenekuk preached against alcohol & violence
28. The Black Hawk War of 1832 > citizens of Illinois wanted natives kicked out
29. Illinois/Iowa: Sauk/Mesquakie leaders split over surrendering their homeland & moving west
30. natives were forced into Iowa, Black Hawk led 2,000 back into Illinois
31. Illinois militias attacked Black Hawk, he believed the return would be peaceful
32. Black Hawk/band leaders were sent to prison
33. Joseph Brant led a significant portion of the Six Nations across the border into Canada
34. Potawatomi of Michigan/Illinois chose to migrate north instead of forced removal
35. many Potawatomi natives moved into Canada (Ilinois, Indiana, S. Michigan > Ontario)
The Debate Over Assimilation p. 184
1. 1830s: supporters of the removal triumphed
2. incorporation of tribal people into general society-didn’t occur
3. Henry Clay: natives were inferior
4. Lewis Cass, Secretary of war, natives had not acculturated well
5. racial/genetic changes were needed?
6. natives should live west of Arkansas & Missouri
7. natives should have a territorial government with a governor, secretary, agents for tribes, marshal, prosecuting attorney, and a court system-Canadian’s didn’t suggest this
8. British expanded support for schools, missions, instruction in white-style farming
9. the Canadian government imposed wardship on the Indians in order to cut costs
10. Indian relations in Quebec were quiet for a decade
11. Indians were used as interpreters, clerks. timber rangers & laborers @ the evolving settlements in Canada
12. missionaries/tribal leaders built churches
13. the Indian land base was reduced
14. rebellions in 1837
15. The Act of Union combined Upper & Lower Canada in 1841
16. 1820s, Lieutenant governor of upper Canada, Maitland assisted the Mississaugas to establish a village near York
17. natives had comfortable houses with furniture & cooking utensils
18. 1824: primary schools taught whites and natives
19. 1829: Methodists operated 7 schools, taught 251 native children
20. sedentary agriculture, education, & Christianity were introduced
21. The Mohawk Institute provided vocational training to the students
22. boys learned tailoring/carpentry, girls learned spinning/weaving
23. Sir John Colborne decided to establish schools @ Coldwater & at the Narrows at Lake Simcoe
24. Ojibwa people lived by hunting, fishing & gathering
25. Methodists succeeded with help of Indian missionaries & local leaders
26. 1860s: few whites/natives really wanted to merge societies
27. students learned quickly when taught in their native language
28. tribal authorities had little control over what whites taught the children
29. boys learned active participation in the economy, girls learned domestic skills
30. native children learned to read the Bible and copied lines, & learned from dictation
31. natives learned better in mother tongue but whites preferred English
32. schools had large expectations but small budgets & inadequate staff/equipment
33. well-trained/acculturated Indians had little opportunities, whites would only hire Indians for menial tasks
34. Ojibwas wanted little to do with visited missionaries/teachers
35. Wawanosh, didn’t want to abandon the religion of his forefathers
Canadian Debates Over Removal & Legal Status, p. 190
1. some opposition to schools/missions arose @ the highest levels of government
2. 1836: British authorities wanted a report on economic/social progress of Indians in Upper/Lower Canada
3. Sir Francis Head: denounced the civilization program
4. any attempt to Indians become farmers failed, they just adopted the vices of Europeans
5. the lieutenant governor urged the tribes to cede their land & move to the Manitoulin islands @ the north shore of Lake Huron & Georgian Bay
6. Bond Head persuaded Ojibwa leaders to give up land so other groups could settle there
7. the Wesleyan Methodist Conference in Upper Canada was upset with Bond Head’s policies
8. Bond Head returned to England, little active support for his removal policy in Canada
9. a multi-tribal settlement called Manitowaning & Wikwemiking villages developed
10. 1844: Manit. had a carpenter, blacksmith, mason, cooper, charcoal burner, shoemaker, laborers to instruct the Indians.
11. Manit. community disintegrated
12. clashing tribal customs created turmoil
1. the US & Canada had tried varied/even conflicting policies toward the tribal people
2. S. government used military force
3. pioneers seized land, mineral, forest resources
4. Canada: government kept the races separate
5. the tribal people only accepted certain elements of white civilization
6. 1840s: different legal status for native people
7. Supreme Court ruled: natives are domestic dependent nations
8. 1839: Canadian Justice Macaulay, natives are subject to the laws of the land
American justice
1. isolate the tribes
Canadian
1. courts would enforce Indian contracts
2. natives could appeal for redress of personal/property violation
3. civil/criminal courts were open for Indians
4. natives could qualify to vote or hold local offices
5. natives could be plantiffs/defendents
6. integrated into the social/legal structure of society
7. Brant had title to land on the Grand River, acted like lands belonged to him
8. government moved to claim Phelp’s land
9. natives were subject to the laws of Canada
10. Bagot Report, on acculturation
11. categories: 1) people of Indian blood, 2) people married to Indians & living in tribes & people adopted into the tribe
12. surveyors staked claims on natives
13. Montreal Mining claimed 180 acres of land
14. 1848, natives had valid complaints
15. the Indians raided the mine company
16. natives wanted hunting/fishing rights protected
17. Robinson/Superior and Robinson/Huron treaties were signed
18. Nova Scotia: colonists said natives posed a threat
19. white parents didn’t want their children exposed to natives, natives didn’t want Indian children exposed to white culture
20. blight struck all the farming in the province
21. 1859: squatters could purchase land if natives approved
22. Micmacs, outcast. Workers as hunters, guides & producers of crafts
23. Canada East: French speaking
24. Protestants & Catholics fought to teach natives
25. Far West: British Columbia
26. large populations, strong defense,
27. misunderstanding, violence, demand for native resources
28. Spanish & Russians explored the Pacific Coast
29. Hudson Bay company spread into Northwest, otter-pelts had always been traded with Europeans
30. headquarters moved to Fort Victoria, Vancouver
31. 1849: trade monopoly for Hudson Bay Company
32.1850, Robinson met with Ojibwa leaders over land dispute
33. Robinson-Superior & Robinson/Huron treaties of 1850s: obtained more land than earlier treaties
34. 1867, provinces held more power than the individual states in the north
35. Nova Scotia: colonists saw natives as unstable people
36. Chief Paussamigh Pemmeenswett appealed for help to Queen Victoria in 1841
37. Canada East, French speaking
38. bitter violence in Washington & Oregon
39. 1864, protection for local reserves vanished quickly
40. Canada’s legislature passed an act for the Gradual Civilization of the Indian Tribes in the Canadas
a. open attack on tribalism
b. tribes were destroyed as identifiable units
c. Indian bands would become Canadian citizens
d. band leaders didn’t want native culture changed
e. government demanded complete assimilation
US Expansion westward, p. 200
1. 1830s, removal of Indians
2. Indian frontier: beyond Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, E. of Mexican territory
3. miscalculation: dramatic increases in territory, Indian cultural strength, Westerner’s preconceived notions
4. vastly underfunded Indian programs
5. E. tribes: hunting > farming, difficult shift
6. natives worked in gold-mining camps
7. 49ers, interracial violence
8. Beale, set up 5 reservations on highly desirable land
9. 1853, Washington became a separate territory
10. small reserves for local people
11. stole Texas, Oregon, California, Southwest
12. whites scared off Indian’s bison
13. 1848, military escorts for whites traveling west
14. The Fort Laramie Treaty, specified tribal lands in the West for the 1st time
15. treaties took Indian land
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