Chapter 8, Societies Under Siege, 1860s-1890s, Ch. VIII, p. 206 to 242

Chapter 8, Societies Under Siege, 1860s-1890s

206 to 242

1. Toohool. argued with the one-armed general
2. solidiers demand Nez Perce vacate the Wallowa Valley in Oregon
3. 30 days to move property & livestock or army would move them to a reservation
4. 1877, Nez Perce flight to Canada 
5. farmers, miners, merchant, hunters, bureaucrats hurt Indians
6. bitter interracial conflict
7. government officials told them what to do
8. Mountees kept the peace
9. Canada: Metis (French/Indian) & English-Scots-Indian 
10. Canada recognized some of the plains groups
11. some tribal people resorted to warfare to protect their lands & customs
12. few violent confrontations-Canada
13. Kickapoos fled from S. Texas into N. Mexico
14. natives see whites as land thieves & speculators
15. Gradual Civilization Act, cultural suicide
16. prize sights given to commercial fisherman
17. Indian traditionalists became Catholics but kept native economic practices
18. Canadian Indians understood their legal rights
19. mines offered the Indians nothing 
20. white’s actions brought Indian retaliation
21. 1863, Chilcotin Indians attacked ferry operator, wrecked the ferry, took powder & lead 
22. Victoria residents demanded military action
23. white aggression WAS pronounced in Canada as well
24. British granted more autonomy to their colonies
25. 1867, William Seward, American secretary of state purchased Alaska from Russia
26. North West “Mountees”: military, police, & civil governmental functions
27. Canada: protect tribal groups, try to assimilate them
28. Enfranchisement Act of 1869, increase governmental interference
29. less than 1/4 heritage, excluded from tribal membership
30. Canada tried to push tribal people into the cultural mainstream
31. federal officers controlled tribal affairs
32. treaties didn’t prevent violence-1860s
33. Civil war encouraged tribal migration
34. North & South wanted Indian troops
35. “Great Sioux War” result of drinking, killed farm family in central Minnesota
36. 1864, raiding bands of Sioux, Pawnees, Cheyennes, Arapahos cleared many pioneers from the central plains
37. Colorado militia- Sand Creek Massacre
38. 1865, The Doolittle Commission
39. Indians experienced hardship because of loss of Buffalo
40. “learn white man’s way if they want their children to survive.”
41. natives didn’t want to be put on reservations
42. Treaty of Medicine Lodge: peace, surrender hunting territories, live on assigned reservations, accept white man’s instruction in farming
43. 1868, Treaty of Fort Laramie
44. Cheyenne raids in Kansas
45. Quaker policy in Indian Office under Uysses Grant
46. 1870s, some Indian agents appointed to Indian Office
47. Grant appointed Parker, a Seneca
48. 1871, instead of treaties, executive orders
49. Indians & settlers didn’t understand Vincent The Good’s efforts
50. 1871, Congress deadlocked with Indian affairs
51. Modoc War, 1872, Red River War, 1874 & Nez Perce in 1877, Ute War of 1879
52. George Custer into Black Hills, Sioux wanted to remove the miners, 
53. Custer led soldiers. miners & reporters to the Black Hills, 
54. 1876, Custer led a large part of the 7th Cavalry Regiment to its destruction on the banks of the Little Bighorn/ Greasy Grass River (Indian name)
55. Custer met full force of Indian tribes but thought only 150 natives would be there
56. Gall, Hump, Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull destroyed most of Custer’s immediate command
57. natives had strong connections to their homelands
58. few accepted the natives right to continue living a traditional lifestyle
59. little thought to where natives should live
60. those who supported acculturation programs failed to accept them as equals

Confrontation On The Canadian Plains
1. US + tribal people fought bloody wars in the decades after 1860
2. Canada usually avoided major confrontation & bloodshed
3. Red River War (1869-70) & Riel-led-Metis(1885-86)
4. governments threatened their land base & economic survival
5. much social prejudice against native customs, language, sense of independence
6. 1869, Rupert’s land became part of Canada
7. 1869, Enfranchisement Act: incorporated existing rules about tribal membership & protection for native lands
8. Metis lived in Manitoba, S. of Lake Winnipeg
a. maintained homes & small farms along the Red & Assiniboine Rivers
b. Canada assumed control of the area
c. William Dougall, newly appointed governor of Rupert’s land arrived
d. Ottawa didn’t provide local participation in governing the region
e. natives organize under Louis Riel Jr. to proclaim their own local government, establish courts & block Canadian penetration
f. Manitoba Act reserved 1.4M acres of land for the next generation of Metis
g. Metis had a claim to aboriginal title to their land, classed as a distinct people
h. 1870: 1) status Indians, 2) non status Indians, 3) Metis, 4) Inuit (Eskimos)
i. 1820s, US regulators gave individual alotments of land to natives
j. both nations used treaties and other agreements to establish tribal land claims
k. Prarie du Chien, called for establishing half breed reservations in Minnesota & in E. Nebraska
l. 1871, Canada: treaties on hunting rights, annuities, schools, tools, farm equipment, a medicine chest
m. 1880s: Canadian government & natives stopped getting along
n. North W. Mounted Police: based on Royal Irish Constabulary, introduced in 1873, 
-hoped to keep peace
-regulate the introduction of alcohol
-discourage American freebooters from crossing the Montana border
o. Mountees had civil/military authority: local justice of the peace to military actions
p. 1880s, buffalo herds were gone to a point where natives had to change their economy
q. Cree/Blackfoot: leader Big Bear was suspicious of whites, wanted none of the Queen’s presents, 
r. Crowfoot, natives could not depend on buffalo hunting for long
s. Plains people sold horses, ate gophers, antelope, mice
t. Ottawa officials broke provisions of the 1876 treaty, wouldn’t give natives the lands they desired & denied the bands food needed for survival
u. 1884: natives protest the inadequacy of government actions
v. 1885: violence erupted in the plains, leader MacDonald wasn’t concerned about Western issues
w. 1869: government mishandled Metis land claims
y. the government hanged Riel, head negotiator
z. Poundmaker & Big Maker had tried to discourage the fighting but were jailed anyway

Educating For Enfranchisement
a. government agents, missionaries, schoolteachers, bureaucrats demanded natives become sedentary farmers
b. bureaucrats decided to put natives in isolation to speed their absorption into American/Canadian society 
c. natives didn’t have a model to emulate
d. 1876, 1st Indian Act in the Parliament, tried to achieve goals of the Enfranchisement Act of 1869
e. Indian department wanted to bread up reserves, assign land to individuals, begin & operate schools & force enfrancisement on unwilling people
f. 1884, Elk v. Wilkins, US Supreme Court ruled that natives were not able to get citizenship
g. the Canadian government DID give natives full rights of citizenship
h. Canadians wanted natives to become lawyers, medical doctors, ministers & priests
i. missionaries/tribal funds paid operational costs for native schools
j. 1875, the Dominican government provided a grant of $2,000 for Indian education
k. Ontario schools, poor native attendance 
l. sporadic attendance frustrated teacher
m. bonuses for students with good attendance?
n. Indian’s actions determined school success 
o. 1880s, some tribes refused to pay for schools
p. natives: suspicious of whites & their institutions
q. Plains tribes didn’t want religion taught to their children
r. Indians resisted acculturation openly & covertly
s. natives viewed boarding schools as a disruption of family/village life
t. natives didn’t believe in corporeal punishment
u. ceremonies: tribal elders, chiefs, shamans, adults instructed children in traditional native customs
v. 1884: government required attendance for all Indian children between 7 & 15
w. Western tribes preferred to hunt, trap, fish & gather
y. Indian Act of 1890, Indians could only hunt for part of the year
z. enforcement remained sporadic

Page 229
1. natives didn’t want to accept the beliefs/customs of the whites
2. students received trading in printing, tinsmithing, carpentry, bootmaking, tailoring, farming
3. some smart students might become teachers or doctors, small #
4. native students had to speak English, cut their hair, wear European style clothing, & changed their recreation
5. most of the students returned to the reserves

Education of the Cherokee Nation
1. the Cherokee National Council began operating schools
2. Male & Female Seminaries for highly structured education
3. natives operated 64 schools, graduates became teachers
4. schools gave no manual training classes
5. religious groups played a small role
6. the Office of Indian affairs believed that natives must learn English
7. officials kept the tribes separated
8. Richard Pratt founded the Carlisle Indian School, Indian prisoners were brought to a black school in Virginia
a. young people had to be integrated immediately
b. the schools often failed to counter the student’s strong cultural strength
c. many students returned to home determined to remain Indians 
d. students became farmers, stock-raisers, skilled laborers, merchants, professionals. Few worked in unskilled positions
e. government service provided many jobs for boarding school graduates
f. job holders were tied into the cash economy
g. the Field Matron Service came to employ Indian women as reservation workers
h. tried to teach Indian women how to run a middle-class household

Missionaries & Reformers (p. 232) 
a. missionaries tried to spread Christianity + increase acculturation
b. William Duncan, Anglican Church Missionary Society to British Columbia, got fifty converts to found a new community
c. courthouse, gail, school, town hall, public reading room & museum were erected
d. Duncan’s ego grew > missionary society split with him
e. natives didn’t like industrial labor: sawmill, cannery, soap factory, small businesses
f. a nativist movement split Duncan’s followers, went to Alaska, founded a community of the same name
g. the Oblates of the RC Church & the Methodists staffed schools throughout the Canadian West
h. 1880s, coercion to achieve particular goals
i. Indian Act of 1884, attacked tribal beliefs/practices
j. 1892: officials thought a Sun Dance event would not be held again, which was held again. 
k. white officials tried to keep natives on reserves but the Mounted Police ignored the statutes
l. acculturation might take generations
m. Women’s National Indian Association & the Indian Right’s Association worked with Board of Indian Commissioners as watchdog groups to oversee the federal treatment of Indians
n. no critical dissent in Canada regarding Indian affairs
o. 1870s: Nebraska Poncas protested
p. Helen Hunt Jackson helped publicize the government’s difficulties with the tribal people, published “A Century Of Dishonor.” raised public awareness when she sent it to every member of Congress
q. tried to end tribalism
r. if Indians were given land, they might adopt the white practice of individual ownership...?
s. if white farmers lived next door, Indians would learn to farm...?
t. 1860s: unsuccessful enfranchisement program in Canada
u. Dawes Severalty Act, gave the president authority to allot reservations
v. 25 years of occupation > Indians received titles to the land
w. surplus land could be placed on the market
y. 1870s, Indian police kept the peace
z. 1883, plural marriages & long hair on men were suppressed > break up tribal/band solidarity + to encourage acculturation

American Efforts At Acculturation
1. white man’s approach to law enforcement & acceptable habits of dress, language, & family matters
2. Canadian post-Confederacy policy tried to bring about rapid acculturation & assimilation of tribal people
3. Canadian officials assumed individualism, personal property, religion, & education would accomplish that goal quickly
4. 1874, Minister of the Interior David Laird wrote that the government should 1) enfranchise Indians, 2) give them an allotment of land from tribal reserves, 3) divide tribal funds among members > 1) promote individual skills natives needed, 2) reduce tribal holdings & reduce native attachment to tribes
a. the 1876 Indian Act took a different approach
b. Indians needed to be able to write English or French to gain enfranchisement + be free of debt & have “good moral character.”
c. applied only to the eastern tribes
d. Canadians believed natives could only do small-scale agriculture
e. 1870s/1880s: Laird wanted family plots near white settlements
f. Indians WANTED to share their land with their tribe
g. 1879: buffalo hunting over > cattle-raising over farming?
h. natives rarely received much help with seed, equipment, & livestock
i. natives needed a permit to sell their crops
j. the Blackfoots began raising cattle in Alberta
k. US 1862 Homestead Act, 160 acre plots, 
l. Indian Homestead Law: opened land to reservation dwellers
m. stock-raising was more practical than farming for western tribes
n. 1875, Gen. Mackenzie purchased cattle & sheep from the Comanche & Kiowa people when people lost battle
o. Indians didn’t have horses to herd cattle, lost or killed many of their animals
p. 3 or 4 year terms for Head Of Indian Affairs
q. 10 year terms made administrative heads complacent

Revitalization & Religious Movements
a. natives turned inward to their cultural/religious practices
b. vision quests, wearing blankets & long hair, continued
c. Dreamer religion, long periods of meditation, founded by Smohalla in the 1850s
d. the Dreamer religion condemned white farming
e. 1881, Squsachtun founded the Indian Shaker religion
-experienced visiting “heaven”
-tried to teach natives how to overcome the difficulties of reservation life
-nervous twitchings, casting off evil thoughts & acts
-federal agents tried to arrest him but they were not successful
f. the Ghost Dance religion, orig. from the visions of Tavibo, a Nevada Paiute, much more widespread
-invading whites would be destroyed in a massive earthquake
-his son Jack Wilson continued preaching the Ghost Dance Religion
-return to Indian practices: 1) frequent bathing, 2) living plainly, 3) avoiding alcohol, 4) prohibiting mourning (all dead Indians would return)
-the worshippers prayed, meditated & danced for up for 5 days > mild group hypnosis
g. the Sioux developed a militant anti-white platform
h. the Ghost Dance developed a secret society with holy clothes to keep warriors safe from the soldier’s bullets
i. 1890s, Sitting Bull was killed
j. soon thereafter Big Foot’s followers were massacred at Wounded Knee
k. high level of Indian unhappiness, low rate of success for acculturation
l. Western approach: education, religion, agriculture, segregated reservations, individual landholdings
m. US army manned settlement/outposts in the West
n. government policies sought to destroy the native’s identity
o. tension between bureaucrats to impose cultural values & natives to retain their values still continues today